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• Identification-related applications:

– Sensor/radio frequency identification (RFID) code, product code, bar code, etc.
– Used for trade, copyright, and ownership (e.g. shipping code, product value chain, security key,
etc.).

• Data intensive applications:
– NoSQL, SPARQL, big data analytics by using MapReduce and Hadoop;
– Used for business intelligences in government and commercial solutions.
• Science and engineering applications:
– Electromagnetic spectrum, traffic signal, time, weather, temperature standards;
– Used for healthcare and medical data (e.g. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence, biometric
data including drugs, etc.).

Data models
The entity-attribute-value (EAV) model is a data model to describe entities where the numbers of attributes
(properties, parameters) that can be used to describe them are potentially vast, but the number that actually
applies to a given entity is relatively modest. In mathematics, this model is known as a sparse matrix. EAV is
also known as object-attribute-value model, vertical database model, and open schema. This data
representation is analogous to space-efficient methods of storing a sparse matrix, where only non-empty
values are stored. The data type of EAV offers a limited set of data types: byte, Boolean, DateTime, double,
and string, in addition to dividing numeric data into int, long, or float. It also defines custom data types such
as a phone number, an e-mail address, geocode, and a medical record, etc. The cloud computing system
offers data stores based on the EAV model, where an arbitrary number of attributes can be associated with
a given entity. XML provides a framework on top of an EAV design and builds an application that has to
manage data sets extremely complicated when using EAV models.
The data serialization model is used for computer science and communication network. The context of data
serialization is the process of translating data structures or objects into a format that can be stored in a file or
memory buffer, or transmitted across the network. For communication network, this process is not
straightforward since data serialization is formatted by their associated protocol. In addition, a
communication system running on a different hardware architecture should be able to reliably reconstruct a
serialized data stream. Serializing the data structure prevents the problems of byte ordering, memory layout,
or simply different ways of representing data structures.

The metadata model describes the contents and contexts of data or data files. Metadata was traditionally
similar to the card catalogues of libraries. As information has become increasingly in digital form, metadata
is used to describe digital data. For example, most files and documents include metadata specifying what
language the page is written in, what format was used to create it, and where to find more information about
the subject. There are two types of metadata: structural metadata and descriptive metadata. Structural
metadata is the data about the containers of data. Descriptive metadata uses to describe individual instances
of application data or the data contents. The main purpose of metadata is to facilitate in the discovery of
relevant information, more often classified as resource discovery. Metadata also helps organize electronic
resources and provide digital identification.

At the XML format, a set of rules to which an XML document must conform, called XML schema published as
W3C, can be used to the processing of XML document [17]. Technically, a schema is an abstract collection of
metadata, consisting of a set of schema components, mainly elements, attribute declarations, and complex
and simple type definitions. These components are usually created by processing a collection of schema
documents, which contain the source language definitions of the components. Schema documents are
organized by namespace. All the named schema components belong to a target namespace which is a
property of the schema document. A schema document may include other schema documents by using the
same namespace and may import schema documents for a different namespace.
With the advent of web services, there are many markup languages, especially the hypertext markup
language (HTML), which is the standard markup language used to create web pages [18]. It is a markup

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