Telecommunication infrastructure forms the foundation and technical backbone necessary for universal and meaningful connectivity (UMC). However, the performance of this infrastructure depends not only on its physical existence but also on the institutional environment and governance that regulate, protect, and manage it. Stable, transparent, and predictable institutions are vital for reducing risk and encouraging sustained, long-term investment in specialized, high-cost infrastructure assets.
The report references seven key policy measures that accelerate progress toward UMC by translating institutional stability into effective regulation: national digital transformation strategies, converged licensing regimes, mandatory infrastructure sharing, spectrum trading, technology-neutral frameworks, sustained competition in basic services, and regulatory spaces for experimentation. Countries that adopt all these measures significantly outperform those that do not, with 5G coverage, for instance, being 40 percentage points higher in conducive regulatory environments.
The ITU G5 Benchmark tool confirms that mature, coordinated governance systems (Leading or Advanced tier) correlate strongly with better infrastructure outcomes.
Infrastructure indicators by G5 Benchmark average scores, 2025
Source: ITU
Globally, two infrastructure components occupy a strategic position: submarine cables and satellites. They form complementary layers of the connectivity fabric, extending reach, strengthening resilience, and linking national networks.
Submarine cables are the hidden backbone, carrying over 99 per cent of international data flows. Investment surged from USD 0.8 billion in 2015 to USD 9.7 billion in 2025, with hyperscale technology companies now playing a leading role in financing new infrastructure. The global network comprises over 500 operational systems (1.4 million kilometres), and demand is accelerating, with bandwidth growing 22 per cent annually since 2021.
The critical nature of these cables exposes them to risk: 86 per cent of faults result from human activities like fishing and anchoring. Repair delays can last weeks or months due to complex factors, including lengthy permitting procedures, customs clearance hurdles, and restrictive cabotage laws. In 2024, ITU and the International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC) launched the International Advisory Body on Submarine Cable Resilience to address these systemic coordination challenges.
Satellites have transformed from specialized solutions into strategic tools for extending reach and resilience, particularly in remote, mountainous, and insular areas where terrestrial networks are impractical, and during emergencies. Growth accelerated markedly in 2024, driven by the deployment of multi-orbit networks (GEO, MEO, LEO). This is likely to continue with further technological advances like steerable beams and Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN) integration into 5G and 6G ecosystems. Despite this growth, satellite penetration remains extremely low – less than one subscription per 1 000 inhabitants globally. The rapid growth in satellite constellations, however, poses significant risks to space sustainability, including collisions and debris generation, threatening the long-term viability of orbital resources. ITU addresses these concerns through spectrum coordination and the ITU Space Sustainability Forum.
Evolution of satellite broadband subscriptions
Source: ITU
In conclusion, accelerating UMC requires recognizing that infrastructure effectiveness is tied to governance. Governments must promote a multi-technology infrastructure stack (fibre, mobile, satellite) and advance resilience and sustainability through global frameworks for cable protection and responsible orbital management. Strengthening institutional capacity and embedding evidence-based policy-making are paramount to directing private investment toward closing access gaps.