Page 562 - Shaping smarter and more sustainable cities - Striving for sustainable development goals

water‐related infections, diseases, people displacement, adverse psychological effects, and other
stresses (IPCC, 2007).

Some examples of direct and indirect impacts of climate change in cities include:
 Increased temperature: heat stress represents a serious public health concern especially in
summers. Urban residents are particularly at risk of heat stress given the fact that higher
temperatures occurs in urban regions more than in rural areas due to the 'urban heat island
effect' (displayed in Figure 1). Illustrating these impacts, the 2003 summer heat wave in Western
Europe has been linked to 35,000 deaths (UN‐HABITAT, 2009). Indirect impacts include the
overstress of energy transmission and distribution, due to the increased incidence or duration
of summer heat waves, in conjunction with high energy demand for cooling (IEA, 2013).

Source: UCAR (University Corporation for Atmospheric Research) (2009)

Figure 1 – The urban heat island effect
 Heatwaves: these events could reduce the ability to work and result in lower productivity
thereby shortening or delaying the delivery of products and services to clients within the city
and elsewhere. They can reduce the use of public spaces and thus constrain social life. High
temperatures can put infrastructure at risk, including ICT Infrastructure, as fluctuating heat
levels can cause continuous thermal expansion and contraction of roads and railroad tracks,
physically weakening the construction infrastructure and in the process hamper the supply of
goods and movement of commuters. This also adds to maintenance costs (in terms of labour as
well as finances) of these structures. (EEA, 2012).
 Sea level rise: rise in sea level is one of the most well‐known effects of climate change which
has proved detrimental to human life and property. One common cause of sea level rise is
accelerated glacial melting as a result of increased temperatures due to global warming. Such
rises in sea level are unpredictable, and can cause coastal flooding that may lead to loss of life
and property (UNFCCC, 2012). Other direct effects of sea level rise include inundation and
displacement, coastal erosion and land loss, increased storm flooding and damage, increased
salinity in estuaries and coastal aquifers, rising coastal water tables and impeded drainage.

552 ITU‐T's Technical Reports and Specifications