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evidencing the need for them to adapt to both current and future manifestations (UN‐HABITAT,
2012).

The following section of the report explores the main climate change risks, vulnerabilities and
impacts that cities are facing, and will likely face in the foreseeable future. The analysis also
addresses, in general terms, how cities are adapting to these risks and vulnerabilities. This will set
the basis to provide an understanding of how cities can apply ICTs as an enabler to better adapt to
climate change. Box 1 presents some of the key definitions used as the basis for the analysis.

Box 1. Key definitions

Climate change refers to a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity
that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods.
Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or
expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It refers to changes in processes, practices,
and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with
climate change (IPCC, 2007).
Vulnerability to climate change is the degree to which geophysical, biological and socio‐economic
systems are susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse impacts of climate change.
Vulnerability can be described using the following components: exposure, sensitivity and adaptive
capacity (IPCC, 2007).
Adaptive capacity (in relation to climate change impacts): The ability of a system to adjust to climate
change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take
advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences (IPCC, 2014).
Sources: UNFCCC (2014) http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/background/items/2536.php
IPCC (2007). "Climate Change 2007: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability"
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/annexessglossary‐a‐d.html
IPCC Glossary (2014) http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/annexessglossary‐a‐d.html

2.1 Climate change risks, vulnerabilities and impacts in cities

There is an increasing recognition of the potential impacts of climate change in cities. Cities
contribute to a large portion of a country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), therefore they are the
dominant hubs of economic activities for every nation (Hallegate and Corfee‐Morlot, 2011). Climate
change may affect urban economic activities and services, thereby damaging important sectors and
services including water supply and sanitation, agriculture, urban planning, mobility, building
infrastructure, energy, health, waste management and food security, among others.

Cities sectors are interconnected, and therefore, a failure in one sector (e.g., in the case of extreme
weather events) could have a 'domino effect' on other cities sectors and lead to an overall economic
loss for a country or region (GTZ, 2009). Studies suggest that windstorms and floods that took place
in Asia between 1996 and 2005 caused over 70,000 deaths, with an estimated economic loss of
around US$ 190 billion. A large part of this loss is due to the lack of resilient and adequate
infrastructure, including ICT infrastructure.

Similarly, rapid urbanisation and population growth can worsen the impacts of climate change in
cities. The Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations (UNDESA), has
estimated that by 2050, about 70% of the world's population is expected to live in urban areas and
over 60% of the land projected to become urban by 2030 is yet to be built. This high concentration

550 ITU‐T's Technical Reports and Specifications