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and the publishers sought more control over the machine interoperability, which focuses largely
pricing of their products. on e-health applications such as remote patient
monitoring. It has released an open API and
4.5.1.2 Technical collaboration several free reports in order to support the ITU’s
standardization work. By contrast, the ITU has
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used a more hybrid approach in the development
Technical collaboration is a more collaborative
form of interop. It usually involves some form of of ITU-T H.810 standards for the interoperability
IP licensing at its foundation, but the cooperation of personal health systems. In that case, the
goes beyond the mere granting of IP licences. ITU partnered with Continua Alliance, a non-
Often, technical collaboration is an approach profit organization that charges for access to its
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used by companies at different levels of the value standards.
chain, in order to improve the user’s experience.
A significant example of this is the level of Standards hold great potential to achieve high
cooperation required for many mobile payment degrees of interoperability, but this approach also
systems, which require technical cooperation can limit overall effectiveness. Open standards
between retailers, device manufacturers, payment initiatives are a purely voluntary effort, and
processors, and banks. anecdotal evidence suggests that companies
with patent portfolios might easily interfere
Technical collaboration shares many of the or even block such initiatives. Furthermore,
advantages of IP licensing and generally appears standard-setting processes are often complex,
to be an effective, efficient, and flexible approach time-consuming, and relatively expensive when
toward increased levels of interoperability. compared to unilateral or bilateral approaches.
However, some scenarios entail fewer such Arguably, their cost efficiency is, therefore,
advantages. One of these is a situation in which comparatively low.
the collaborators grow so large that coordination
and monitoring costs become too difficult or With regard to flexibility, standards reflect the
expensive. This challenge has occurred in mobile characteristics of the specific environment in
money markets in some countries. As a recent which they are intended to operate. This means
ITU report described, “In a country with just a few that a standard may represent a snapshot of
mobile payment operators, it might be possible to technology development at a particular point
do this bilaterally or multilaterally. However, as the in time. Depending on the speed at which
number of operators increases, the relationships technology develops, a standard based on
between them, and the costs of the solution, grow outdated assumptions might restrictively peg
exponentially.” Like other approaches, technical future developments to historical limitations.
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collaboration can also be misused to achieve anti-
competitive objectives not aligned with increased
interoperability goals. 4.5.2 Regulatory approaches (state actors)
As Figure 4.5 illustrates, Governments and
4.5.1.3 Standards and open standards regulators can also pursue interoperability through
a variety of different approaches, from unilateral
Standards can be characterized as a collaborative to more collaborative ones. These activities also
effort to achieve higher levels of interoperability. vary significantly with regard to how specifically
Open standards have gained much attention they address interoperability. On one side
in recent times, although the exact definition are approaches such as mandating standards
remains controversial. One interpretation is that or requiring the disclosure of interoperability
open standards (a) are approved by formalized information. On the other side are interventions
committees open to participation by all parties, or laws that are more generic and are aimed
and (b) are accessible to the public free of charge. at increasing transparency or competition but
do not address interop specifically. Particularly
The healthcare field provides examples of both careful consideration is needed in interop-specific
open and less-open standards, sometimes interventions, while the application of general laws
within the same organization or institution. One and doctrines is much less problematic.
example is the ITU-T Focus Group on machine-to-
112 Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016