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and the publishers sought more control over the   machine interoperability, which focuses largely
               pricing of their products.                      on e-health applications such as remote patient
                                                               monitoring.  It has released an open API and
               4.5.1.2  Technical collaboration                several free reports in order to support the ITU’s
                                                               standardization work.   By contrast, the ITU has
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                                                               used a more hybrid approach in the development
               Technical collaboration is a more collaborative
               form of interop.  It usually involves some form of   of ITU-T H.810 standards for the interoperability
               IP licensing at its foundation, but the cooperation   of personal health systems.  In that case, the
               goes beyond the mere granting of IP licences.    ITU partnered with Continua Alliance, a non-
               Often, technical collaboration is an approach   profit organization that charges for access to its
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               used by companies at different levels of the value   standards.
               chain, in order to improve the user’s experience.
               A significant example of this is the level of   Standards hold great potential to achieve high
               cooperation required for many mobile payment    degrees of interoperability, but this approach also
               systems, which require technical cooperation    can  limit overall effectiveness.  Open standards
               between retailers, device manufacturers, payment   initiatives are a purely voluntary effort, and
               processors, and banks.                          anecdotal evidence suggests that companies
                                                               with patent portfolios might easily interfere
               Technical collaboration shares many of the      or even block such initiatives.  Furthermore,
               advantages of IP licensing and generally appears   standard-setting processes are often complex,
               to be an effective, efficient, and flexible approach   time-consuming, and relatively expensive when
               toward increased levels of interoperability.    compared to unilateral or bilateral approaches.
               However, some scenarios entail fewer such       Arguably, their cost efficiency is, therefore,
               advantages.  One of these is a situation in which   comparatively low.
               the collaborators grow so large that coordination
               and monitoring costs become too difficult or    With regard to flexibility, standards reflect the
               expensive.  This challenge has occurred in mobile   characteristics of the specific environment in
               money markets in some countries.  As a recent   which they are intended to operate.  This means
               ITU report described, “In a country with just a few   that a standard may represent a snapshot of
               mobile payment operators, it might be possible to   technology development at a particular point
               do this bilaterally or multilaterally. However, as the   in time.  Depending on the speed at which
               number of operators increases, the relationships   technology develops, a standard based on
               between them, and the costs of the solution, grow   outdated assumptions might restrictively peg
               exponentially.”   Like other approaches, technical   future developments to historical limitations.
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               collaboration can also be misused to achieve anti-
               competitive objectives not aligned with increased
               interoperability goals.                         4.5.2   Regulatory approaches (state actors)
                                                               As Figure 4.5 illustrates, Governments and
               4.5.1.3  Standards and open standards           regulators can also pursue interoperability through
                                                               a variety of different approaches, from unilateral
               Standards can be characterized as a collaborative   to more collaborative ones.  These activities also
               effort to achieve higher levels of interoperability.    vary significantly with regard to how specifically
               Open standards have gained much attention       they address interoperability.  On one side
               in recent times, although the exact definition   are approaches such as mandating standards
               remains controversial.  One interpretation is that   or requiring the disclosure of interoperability
               open standards (a) are approved by formalized   information. On the other side are interventions
               committees open to participation by all parties,   or laws that are more generic and are aimed
               and (b) are accessible to the public free of charge.  at increasing transparency or competition but
                                                               do not address interop specifically.  Particularly
               The healthcare field provides examples of both   careful consideration is needed in interop-specific
               open and less-open standards, sometimes         interventions, while the application of general laws
               within the same organization or institution.  One   and doctrines is much less problematic.
               example is the ITU-T Focus Group on machine-to-




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