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or end-to-end data reliability, requiring encryption An open standards approach to interoperability
to be added on top of the basic protocol. In that holds out significant promise to ameliorate both Chapter 4
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way, the widespread prevalence of the Internet the reliability and over-reliance challenges. In
protocols constrains innovation. Security and complex, interoperable systems, it would be
other necessary components must be added on helpful if firms could solve problems for consumers
top of the protocol, because otherwise it would as seamlessly as possible across interconnected
be too hard to innovate new protocols and get systems. Open standards could mitigate, though
widespread adoption, even if those new protocols not completely solve, this issue. Problems
were arguably better. In the same way, e-mail could be solved collaboratively, with multiple
protocols have become a de facto standard. stakeholders represented in the process of
This homogeneity constrains what is possible, identifying and implementing joint solutions.
ultimately providing an upper bound on the
security that can be achieved in standard e-mail. 35
4.4.5 Decreased accountability

4.4.4 Decreased reliability Against the backdrop of increased complexity,
the question of responsibilities and liabilities
The increased complexity of interoperable systems calls for increased scrutiny. In the context of
may lead to decreased reliability. Whether this single sign-on for digital IDs, for example, one
drawback becomes a factor depends heavily on can imagine a scenario in which a third party,
the approach taken towards interoperability. As such as an advertiser, misuses a consumer’s
more systems rely on interop, the overall network data. The lack of a contractual relationship with
grows in complexity, and flaws in these systems the advertiser may hinder the consumer’s ability
might be difficult to fix quickly or even to identify. to receive proper compensation for the harm.
In some instances, flaws in one system may But interoperability, again, is not the cause of
affect other, interconnected systems – leaving the harm, and a careful drafting of contracts
the interconnected networks powerless to fix could avoid unintended and unnecessary liability
them. This problem might affect consumers, too, exposure. As an alternative, the digital service
who find they cannot identify a single point of provider could take a more active role in policing
contact in order to get a problem fixed. Consider the third parties. Facebook recently took this
a customer at a store who is having trouble using step, demanding that companies using Facebook
her mobile payment system. Is the problem with credentials submit to “an audit process that
the retailer’s payment terminal or the customer’s requires them to explain why they’ve chosen to
mobile device? Is it the payment system or the collect certain pieces of customer information in
underlying credit card infrastructure? It may be their data payload.” Based on those explanations,
challenging or impossible for the customer to Facebook can choose to deny access to data. 37
diagnose the problem. In fact, nearly two thirds of
Apple Pay users have reported problems using the
service, leading many of them simply to give up on 4.4.6 Decreased accessibility
the system, particularly if the problems are outside
of the user’s control. As interoperability scales Looking at the risks of decreased reliability and
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up, the level of complexity will continue to rise. security from interoperability, there are concerns
that these problems might induce some players
There is a variation of the reliability issue – to withdraw from the online environment. In the
over-reliance. As interoperability increases, electronic healthcare record industry, for instance,
downstream systems become increasing reliant there are concerns that interoperability might pose
on upstream systems. This problem was observed higher security risks than would non-interoperable
when Twitter’s decision to change its open API solutions. Doctors and patients might then opt
threatened to disrupt the downstream systems out of the system. Although that hasn’t happened
that relied on that API. Even though there is yet, if it does, accessibility will decrease and the
no promise among the entities to maintain the efficiency and health gains of online distribution
status quo, the abandonment of it may threaten will be lost, at least in part.
interoperability by reducing the incentive of
downstream entities to invest or trust in it.

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