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process [30, 31]. The capabilities and comfort of RP at that time community. Building on RepRap, MakerBot, founded in 2009,
were quite limited with regard to the quality of the finished was the first company to launch affordable 3D printers. With
prototypes and the level of detail. Furthermore, printing was slow, printers and software becoming cheaper, faster and more reliable,
expensive and restricted to plastics, producing only small parts. 3D printing was experiencing an annual average growth rate of
Improvements regarding those limitations fueled the wider 346% between 2007 and 2011 [4]. In 2011, consumer machines
adoption of RP, with the US automotive industry beginning to use outsold professional machines for the first time [20].
it at scale [4, 20].
Considering the growing number of users, the need for standards The technology is currently at a very early stage, the absolute
became apparent. Concerns have been expressed regarding number of sold personal 3D printers remains relatively low
limitations of applied industry practices [23]. Conventional (35,508 units in 2012) and the further adoption is expected to be
standards for other technologies are not always applicable to AM slow and limited due to prices and immaturity of the technology
which has distinct requirements [21]. Having had no explicit [4]. Despite the technological improvements, growing interest and
formal standards for RP, the community mainly relied on informal expanding application, AM for the production of final products is
or industry standards, “benchmark” parts that have been regarded to still being in the “innovator” phase as well due to a
developed for particular user communities or specifications for RP lack of robust AM machines and high-volume production systems
materials [23]. Finally, in 1997, the US National Institute of which impedes the transformation of AM into a serial production
Standards and Technology (NIST) hosted the industry workshop technology [6]. Final products need to meet all the requirements
“Measurement and standards issues in rapid prototyping” with the of conventionally produced products and processes regarding
intention to gather information on industry needs regarding quality, durability, repeatability and consistency [26]. With the
standards and to develop priorities for future work. Despite the progressive adoption especially in performance and safety-critical
general consensus and awareness for the importance of the topic application areas such as medicine or aerospace, the importance of
[23], it took more than 10 years before the first formal standard standards to support acceptance and diffusion of AM rose [33].
committee was established.
4.2. Recent activities in standardization it their drivers
4.1.2. Rapid Tooling and Rapid Manufacturing / Direct (Digital)
Manufacturing Though the need for standards has already been expressed in the
mid-1990s, it took many years before formal standardization
Around the turn of the millennium important improvements in started. It was the Association of German Engineers (VDI) which
AM processes and materials were achieved which allowed a first came up with technical regulations for AM responding to
transition from using the technology merely for RP towards the growing pressure from its community. Established in 2003, the
use for Rapid Tooling (RT) and Rapid Manufacturing (RM) or VDI technical committee (TC) “Rapid Prototyping” (later
Direct (Digital) Manufacturing [20, 30]. Advancements such as renamed into “FA 105 Additive Manufacturing”) published the
better lasers and scanners as well as faster layer deposition first dedicated AM standards for terminology and AM processes
considerably enhanced the speed and accuracy of the processes. (VDI 3404 and VDI 3405) whose content was later adapted to a
Furthermore, the range and quality of available materials have large extent in the international standards ISO/ASTM 52792 and
significantly improved. Parts can now be made of almost any ISO 17296-2,3,4. Until today, VDI ensures an active and well
material, such as metals, polymers, ceramics, or composites. positioned representation of German interests in international
Additionally, better performing software tools were available and standardization through its work [34, 35].
machines were equipped with additional features such as the Also in the USA activities were triggered by an engineering
ability to print in color or with multiple materials [20]. The association: Recognizing the pressing need for standards in AM,
amount of research efforts and technological advancements are the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) initiated a
reflected in an exponentially growing number of patent cooperation with ASTM International, forming the ASTM
applications from the year 2000 onwards [32]. The number of Committee F42 on Additive Manufacturing Technologies, the first
scientific publications shows a significant uptake as well from 477 official TC for AM in a formal standards body. Through the
in the year 2000 to 1,506 publications in 2012 [1]. cooperation of both organizations, the participation of SME’s AM
Together with decreasing costs for machineries and materials as community in the standards development process was facilitated,
well as the general growing awareness of the potential of AM [5, helping to bring a broad global membership to the committee [36].
28] these developments enabled the use of the technology to Currently more than 550 members from 26 countries are working
produce finished goods, ready for end-use, defining a new area of in the committee, having published 14 standards so far, with 17
manufacturing [31]. Especially in automotive, medicine, and more currently under development.
aerospace the technology has been well adopted [33]. Adoption Many actors and events have shaped and influenced
has further been increased recently due to the emergence of online standardization, covering governments, R&D initiatives,
3D printing platforms such as Materialise, Sculpteo or Shapeways technological, market and societal developments.
that print and deliver objects from files provided by users directly Having recognized the importance of AM for their economy and
[4]. This development led straight to a new phase in AM. competitive position, governments worldwide have been
implementing and funding research projects to advance the
4.1.3. Home Fabrication technology and support their domestic industry [5]. The Obama
Administration e.g. launched a public-private partnership named
Whereas the first 20 years of AM were reserved for RP and “America Makes”, the leading and collaborative partner in AM
industrial applications, since 2005 a consumer market has been research. This initiative recognized as well the need for standards
emerging and growing constantly. Final consumers now can have and a coordinated and strategic approach in standardization –
their own personal 3D printer to directly manufacture at home. together with the claim for U.S. leadership and coordination in
This third phase of AM has certainly caused a hype around 3D that domain. In cooperation with the American National
printing and was triggered by several factors. Relevant patents Standards Institute (ANSI) the Additive Manufacturing
such as the original patent for Fused Deposition Modeling expired Standardization Collaborative (AMSC) was founded in 2016 in
which allowed the creation of RepRap, an open source hardware order to accelerate the development of standards. The AMSC has

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