ITU‐T's Technical Reports and Specifications 555 Table 1 – Examples of direct and indirect impacts of climate change in cities Projected climate change impacts Likelihood Direct impacts Indirect impacts Geographical location affected (4) Intensity of tropical cyclone activity increases Likely Damage and losses of physical assets and infrastructure. Increased risk of death, injuries and illnesses. Disruption of transport, commerce and economic activities. Impacts on tourism and local livelihoods, psychological impacts/stress of vulnerable populations. Coastal and port cities. (5) Areas affected by drought increase Likely Stress on water resources Reduced energy supply from hydropower. Land degradation with lower agricultural yields, increased risk of food shortage and dust storms. Water quantity and quality for consumption and food production Population migration. Cities unused to arid conditions. (6) Rising sea level Virtually certain Permanent erosion and submersion of land. Cost of coastal protection or coast of relocation. Decreased ground water availability. Increase salinity in estuaries & coastal aquifers. Effects of tropical cyclones and storm surges, particularly coastal flooding. Recreational activities are affected. Coastal cities. Source: Compiled from World Bank (2011) and Hunt and Watkiss (2011) 2.2 Approaches to climate change adaptation in cities A number of cities have developed adaptation strategies, frameworks and/or plans using different approaches. These range from sector plans, strategic plans focusing on specific themes or risks, to broader holistic plans that integrate the various approaches and/or different aspects in a city. Selected examples are listed below: The New York City adaptation approach followed a multistep process that included identification of climate hazards and impacts, developing and evaluating adaptation strategies, implementing actions, and monitoring results. The work was led by the New York City Climate Change Adaptation Task Force, with the assistance of the New York City Panel on Climate Change (Rosenzweig and Solecki, 2010).