ITU‐T's Technical Reports and Specifications 509 3.4 Water utilities and infrastructure The rate of urbanization in some cities exceeds the capacities of governments (both local and national) to effectively plan and transition in an efficient and sustainable manner. Since the infrastructure design and capacity of water distribution and treatment plants are reliant on forecasted water demands and socio‐economic data, unforeseen urban growth can lead to severe inequalities in service provision, thus constraining public access to water and sanitation. Population growth in developing countries is often accompanied by increasing socio‐economic challenges. For most cities in the developing world, a lack of revenue has translated into the lack of investment, limiting the city's ability to repair deteriorating infrastructure or improve aging facilities, while fostering the spread of informal infrastructure. Aging infrastructure is one of the most pressing concerns for the water utility industry. Statistics suggest that metallic water pipes failure rates range from 0.1 and 0.9 breaks per km and year11. According to the American Water Works Association, simply restoring existing water systems will cost over USD 1 trillion over the next 25 years12. Water lines, sewer mains, and treatment plants in cities, many built over a hundred years, are either leaking, collapsing, or overflowing, and it is estimated that 40% of clean water is lost yearly due to leaks with non‐revenue water accounting for approximately USD 14 billion lost annually13. Water losses are also linked to illegal connections within the distribution network, as high amounts of non‐revenue water means that a large portion of revenue is not always claimed from the customers. With the high cost of constructing, operating and maintaining water supply pumping, treatment and distribution infrastructure, and water utilities unable to recover these costs, a growing number of cities are facing serious challenges in the provision of safe and adequate water/sanitation. While this section has focused on water utilities, it is important to recognize that urban water management encompasses a more diverse group of institutions and stakeholders, including property developers and households that invest in green roofs or buy water‐efficient appliances. Further information on the role of these varied stakeholders in the implementation of SSC strategies can be found in other Technical Reports prepared by ITU FG‐SSC (e.g. Smart Buildings for Smart Sustainable Cities, SSC Stakeholders)14