services and apps, including radio-frequency spectrum and addressing resources.5.3.5.1 Spectrum All wireless communications require radio spectrum. New entrants have made their way into the sector by leveraging new spectrum access methods and new business models.32 As a result, there is a proliferation of m-services and applications, which adds pressure on regulators to free up access to more spectrum for broadband wireless network access. Both licensed and unlicensed spectrum is needed to support the digital ecosystem.33 How should regulators respond to this pressure? At this point the primary regulatory objectives will be threefold: (1) to ensure availability of adequate spectrum to accommodate the increasing number of apps and m-services being delivered over mobile or WiFi networks; (2) to avoid erecting barriers on pricing or even competition; and (3) most importantly, to ensure that existing spectrum policies can help create an environment for innovators to use spectrum as a resource for new technological goods and services.34 5.3.5.2 Incumbents versus new entrants Legacy systems continue to pose roadblocks on the way to innovation. One of these barriers is the legacy method of spectrum allocation, which prescribes exclusive use and a high cost of access. This barrier to market entry and growth often blocks innovation. Existing players tend not to be interested in disruptive ideas, especially if there is a threat to their revenues and profitability. Policy-makers need to adopt transformative approaches to guide future spectrum policy development and encourage incremental innovation.35 It will be important to provide a transparent, market-based mechanism for spectrum access and to eliminate any service and technology restrictions that may have been part of spectrum licences in the past. Those restrictions may not be valid within a converged environment and may restrict the emerging, innovative ways that the spectrum can be put to use.In an effort to find solutions to share existing spectrum, it is prudent to consider new, flexible approaches to spectrum licensing (or within a licence-exempt framework). In fact, some old certainties and assignment methods that were based on clear lines between licensed and license‐ exempt frameworks are beginning to blur – with potentially uncertain results. Perhaps more can be done at a spectrum policy level to provide a wider range of spectrum products.36 One idea is to enable a “staircase” of spectrum access, matching levels of spectrum access to diverse needs and funding constraints. This may, in turn, introduce spectrum access methods that allow low- to no-cost access to spectrum, reduce barriers to entry and foster more flexible methods of allocating, clearing, using and/or sharing spectrum.37 Additionally, database and sensing technologies are also driving opportunistic sharing, challenging current licensing conventions.38 The momentum around Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) technology continues to gather, and in most cases, it is initially targeted at the white spaces in TV spectrum. DSA is an efficient and optimized technique of using under-utilized frequency bands to improve the way wireless devices access spectrum resources. In TV broadcast spectrum, for example, under-utilized channels -- known as TV white spaces -- can be used to extend bandwidth capacity for wireless devices. Singapore, was one of the very early adopters of DSA technology in its search for more bandwidth to meet the need for more connectivity. There are several ongoing commercial trials and pilots worldwide – in the UK, Philippines, Ghana, Kenya, Botswana and Namibia, to name a few. In Africa, Microsoft has exclusively focused on demonstrating the technical feasibility of using TV white space technology to extend affordable Internet in under-served areas, using solar power in off-grid areas.39 Perspectives are not fully settled on adoption of new spectrum access methods such as DSA. While they have been deployed commercially in some countries, others have adopted a cautious approach. Going forward, regulators will engage in a cost-benefit analysis between (1) using innovative means for spectrum access to bridge the digital divide and obtain national coverage and (2) the implications of adopting a fixed or variable (dynamic) power-level approach when it comes to TV White Space regulation.134 Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016