have access to multiple parts of the system and can interact with the operators through highly complex interfaces. However, in the Internet of Things or the wearables market, end users are unlikely to have access to large parts of the system, and the interface may be as small as a watch face. In those challenging circumstances, how can interoperable systems better communicate with end-users?• How do issues of surveillance and national security factor into the interop calculus? When regulators and governments are weighing whether and how to intervene in order to encourage higher levels of interop, to what extent should surveillance and national security factor into those decisions? The Internet is value-neutral and networks can be used in ways that either benefit or harm society; interoperability merely amplifies both. Higher levels of interop do not inexorably lead to more surveillance or less. Greater levels of interop can create both a higher risk of surveillance and greater threats to national security. How, then, do governments approach interop issues when considered through the lens of their broader roles and responsibilities?• How do regulators optimize interop while operating within the constraints of their complex political environments? Although regulators and policy-makers have many traditional means of increasing levels of interop (e.g., mandating standards, passing legislation), this chapter has highlighted many of the other approaches in the regulatory toolbox. Indeed, in many cases, these alternative approaches may be the most effective. Governments, however, have many constituencies with competing interests. The balancing described in this chapter is challenging enough in a vacuum, and is even more so in the real world. For example, an agency may feel political pressure to demonstrate decisive action, when a more light-handed approach actually would better optimize interop. How can governments best take into account their constraints while still enabling interop?The answers to these questions are not simple, but wrestling with them will be critical for designing the next generation of interoperable technologies. Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016 119 Chapter 4