Depending on the context, the three benchmarks of effectiveness, efficiency, and flexibility might have different relevance or weight. One might imagine scenarios, for example, in which interoperability serves such an important goal (e.g., emergency number compatibility) that flexibility – at least in the short run – is less important than a high degree of effectiveness in the immediate term. In other instances, a government might not want to impose standards, given their relatively high cost and poor flexibility, despite the approach’s potential effectiveness.4.6 The role of government 4.6.1 Governments have multiple roles As noted above, governments and regulators can choose many possible approaches to fostering interoperability. Given the array of approaches, as well as the necessity of properly matching the approach to the situation, it is important to consider how governments can best deploy their array of tools in the “interop toolbox.”Of course, governments can act as regulators, but they can actually implement interop policy through several other roles. Consider, for example, the following roles that governments have played while pursuing interoperable cloud strategies:54 • Governments as users – Governments are adopting cloud computing services to take advantage of cost savings and innovative features – and, in turn, they are using their market power to shape interoperability.• Governments as regulators – Governments can act through their legislative, judicial and regulatory branches to implement policy through the rule of law.• Governments as coordinators – Governments might coordinate public and private initiatives, through standards-setting processes and by facilitating the sharing of information between private and public stakeholders.• Governments as promoters – Governments can actively promote the industry as a whole by endorsing and funding incubation programs.• Governments as researchers – Governments are conducting or funding research on technical or societal issues important for interop.• Governments as service providers – Governments can choose to provide cloud services for use by other government agencies or the public.Governments should critically consider the timing and type of any intervention on behalf of promoting interoperability. Regulators, for instance, need to determine carefully the appropriate time to intervene, for instance, by adjusting consumer protection or privacy laws. They need to strike the right balance between facilitating technological innovation and providing regulatory safeguards for users and other stakeholders. Ideally, the government responds to public guidance in making these determinations and engages in a multifactor analysis to determine the right time to intervene with the right intervention. Such an analysis would include assessing the maturity of the technology and market structure. Even government use of procurement power requires careful consideration. By acting early to influence the market, governments can have the biggest impact on the development of a market and its use of interoperability. But as soon as industry practices and standards are set, they are much harder to influence. For that reason, some countries have found better results by anticipating needs early and entering the market when their influence can be most effective. It is also critical to recognize that technology, markets, strategies, and rationales for adoption and promotion change over time. The dynamic nature of technologies, such as cloud computing, requires that governments engage proactively over time, adjusting their actions with the changing landscape. Governments should see this as a systematic learning process.The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) at the United States Department of Commerce has been effective at adapting to changing circumstances in its work on development of an interoperable smart grid. One example of this is how NIST managed the Smart Grid Interoperability Panel (SGIP), a multi-116 Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016