or end-to-end data reliability, requiring encryption to be added on top of the basic protocol.34 In that way, the widespread prevalence of the Internet protocols constrains innovation. Security and other necessary components must be added on top of the protocol, because otherwise it would be too hard to innovate new protocols and get widespread adoption, even if those new protocols were arguably better. In the same way, e-mail protocols have become a de facto standard. This homogeneity constrains what is possible, ultimately providing an upper bound on the security that can be achieved in standard e-mail.35 4.4.4 Decreased reliability The increased complexity of interoperable systems may lead to decreased reliability. Whether this drawback becomes a factor depends heavily on the approach taken towards interoperability. As more systems rely on interop, the overall network grows in complexity, and flaws in these systems might be difficult to fix quickly or even to identify. In some instances, flaws in one system may affect other, interconnected systems – leaving the interconnected networks powerless to fix them. This problem might affect consumers, too, who find they cannot identify a single point of contact in order to get a problem fixed. Consider a customer at a store who is having trouble using her mobile payment system. Is the problem with the retailer’s payment terminal or the customer’s mobile device? Is it the payment system or the underlying credit card infrastructure? It may be challenging or impossible for the customer to diagnose the problem. In fact, nearly two thirds of Apple Pay users have reported problems using the service, leading many of them simply to give up on the system, particularly if the problems are outside of the user’s control.36 As interoperability scales up, the level of complexity will continue to rise.There is a variation of the reliability issue – over-reliance. As interoperability increases, downstream systems become increasing reliant on upstream systems. This problem was observed when Twitter’s decision to change its open API threatened to disrupt the downstream systems that relied on that API. Even though there is no promise among the entities to maintain the status quo, the abandonment of it may threaten interoperability by reducing the incentive of downstream entities to invest or trust in it.An open standards approach to interoperability holds out significant promise to ameliorate both the reliability and over-reliance challenges. In complex, interoperable systems, it would be helpful if firms could solve problems for consumers as seamlessly as possible across interconnected systems. Open standards could mitigate, though not completely solve, this issue. Problems could be solved collaboratively, with multiple stakeholders represented in the process of identifying and implementing joint solutions.4.4.5 Decreased accountability Against the backdrop of increased complexity, the question of responsibilities and liabilities calls for increased scrutiny. In the context of single sign-on for digital IDs, for example, one can imagine a scenario in which a third party, such as an advertiser, misuses a consumer’s data. The lack of a contractual relationship with the advertiser may hinder the consumer’s ability to receive proper compensation for the harm. But interoperability, again, is not the cause of the harm, and a careful drafting of contracts could avoid unintended and unnecessary liability exposure. As an alternative, the digital service provider could take a more active role in policing the third parties. Facebook recently took this step, demanding that companies using Facebook credentials submit to “an audit process that requires them to explain why they’ve chosen to collect certain pieces of customer information in their data payload.” Based on those explanations, Facebook can choose to deny access to data.37 4.4.6 Decreased accessibility Looking at the risks of decreased reliability and security from interoperability, there are concerns that these problems might induce some players to withdraw from the online environment. In the electronic healthcare record industry, for instance, there are concerns that interoperability might pose higher security risks than would non-interoperable solutions. Doctors and patients might then opt out of the system. Although that hasn’t happened yet, if it does, accessibility will decrease and the efficiency and health gains of online distribution will be lost, at least in part.Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016 109 Chapter 4