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growth, although cost and reliability remain issues for large-scale systems, as does connectivity. IoT technical standards have evolved from a variety of different applications and stakeholders with different aims and requirements, and more work is needed to integrate diferent standards frameworks. A significant opportunity is the greater use of open data platforms and Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), which can enable greater innovation in IoT systems. Table 3.2 provides an overview of the various challenges and opportunities discussed in this section, and identifies best practices looking forward. 3.4.1 Cost and reliability For IoT to become a truly ubiquitous technology, the costs of tags, sensors and communication systems need to fall to a level where they are a very small fraction of the total costs of the objects to which they are atached, with readers also made easily available. Even the cheapest (printed) tags, known as Quick Response (QR) codes, have not yet generated high responses in consumer-targeted marketing campaigns. This is partly because specific software may need to be installed to read the codes – something the users don’t want to do -- and users need to position phone cameras so the code is in focus and can be read accurately36. In response, companies are developing more aesthetically atractive codes that can include images, such as the “dot-less visual codes” being used by Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba to combat counterfeits37. High reliability levels also become important in large-scale systems that can include thousands of sensors, devices and readers. During trials of the most important RFID standard, EPC Global, retailers Walmart and Tesco had difficulties in detecting tags due to product orientation and the blocking efects of nearby materials38. Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016 75 Chapter 3 Figure 3.4: Popular IoT uses GPS, Fitbits Visa PayWave Mastercard Paypass Employee passes Mobile money Fitness data, GPS location-based data Individual person, Immediate friends/family, banks, employers Speed, distance, airbag,crash locations/alerts,Heart rate, blood pressure,Diet, remote heating data Electricity/water consumption and billing Traffic flow data Authorities/regulators Utility companies Other citizens GP, health authorities,health and car insurance, police, wider friends social networks Intelligent Transport Systems Event Data Recorders (EDRs)Blood pressure monitors,remote burglar/heating systems Smart metering Smart water meters Traffic monitoring INDIVIDUAL COMMUNITY SOCIETY Smartphones Wearables Connected Cars Health devices Smart homes Smart Cities Smart Grids IoT Egs.Data Intended Audience Source: ITU.