At the technical level, open access services can be provided at: • layer 0: civil infrastructure (ducts, poles, towers); • layer 1: transmission media (fibres, copper); • layer 2: transmission point-to-point connections; and • layer 3: Internet Protocol.Open access at one level typically allows competition at higher levels. The principle of open access can be applied to a number of investment models. Managing authorities will need to decide when (and at what levels) to avoid network duplication and when competition – including potential infrastructure \"over-building\" – can be encouraged. These decisions should take place well in advance, based on analysis and modelling.In terms of wireless networks, there is insufficient international experience to suggest what may constitute best practices in wholesale, open-access, wireless networks. Emerging projects may yet develop best practices, but such networks face significant organizational and strategic challenges.1.4.4 Procurement Due to the nature of PPP projects, which involve public funding, they are conducted normally as public network procurements. Whether financed through a universal service fund or by other means, such projects should be undertaken according to best practice principles, ensuring they are fair, equitable, transparent, competitive and cost-effective. Privately funded broadband projects, however, are not bound by these principles, although many of the best practice principles still apply. These principles are described in more detail in Annex 1.1.5 Alternative approaches to funding broadband networks The previous sections in this report have looked at strategies governments and operators can use to invest in publicly subsidized broadband projects – often PPP projects. The methods privately owned operators use to raise funds are relatively well known and, therefore, not discussed in this report. However, increasing numbers of existing operators, new entrants and financiers have developed alternative funding approaches for broadband network investments. To examine such alternative approaches, we have selected examples from four investor categories, as set out in Table 1.8. Moreover, we have provided a detailed case study for of each of these investor categories. Each case study provides the motivation for the financing approach, the role of the regulator in attracting investment, and an overview of potential barriers to investment.1.5.1 Existing market players Operators traditionally have invested in broadband infrastructure in commercially viable areas using their own capital investment funds. In some cases, operators have generated funds by selling de-commissioned network assets (e.g. copper Trends in Telecommunication Reform 2016 21 Chapter 1 Table 1.8: An overview of investor categories and corresponding case studies Investor category Case study Existing parties Existing market players MGTS, Russia MGTS New market entrants Google Fiber, USA Google Fiber, Uganda Google Fiber Google Fiber New financiers SIGFOX, France Seacom, Africa Asia–Pacific Gateway, Asia Elliot Management Convergence Partners Facebook Not-for-profit investors Community broadband, Germany Various Communities Source: Analysys Mason, 2015