sharing at the access network layer with the sharing of dedicated frequencies. As convergence has changed the way services are developed and delivered, net neutrality—the idea that all traffic on the Internet should be treated equally—has emerged as an important issue. Proponents of net neutrality are concerned that large access providers will discriminate against certain providers (i.e., those that compete with the provider’s own service), or that they will prioritize some traffic or services (their own or those willing to pay more); thus skewing competition. The access providers argue that they have to be able to manage traffic to ensure network security and avoid congestion. To address such concerns as well as other rising challenges, some countries have begun to reform their regulatory approach. The competitive landscape has undoubtedly become more complex over the last several years. With advancing technology and changing consumer demands, competition issues have only become more important. In an effort to address these changes, policymakers and regulators are engaged in various efforts to ensure competition flourishes and consumers are protected. With data trends continuing to point to substantial increases in usage and traffic, it is critical that consumer protection and competition remain at the forefront of any future regulatory changes. Chapter 3: New Frontiers in Spectrum Licensing New Frontiers in Spectrum Licensing Spectrum managers in countries around the globe today face strong pressure to free up more spectrum for broadband wireless network access. Prompted by a sharp and accelerating rise in wireless broadband subscriptions in many countries, regulators are scrambling to find more spectrum for the wider channels and greater throughput available with advanced wireless technologies such as Long-Term Evolution (LTE). This chapter looks at the exploration, now under way in some countries, of ways to accommodate broadband spectrum expansion through new modes of sharing and innovations in licensing, without compromising incumbent spectrum uses. There are several legacy methods of spectrum sharing, which can be described along the three-dimensional axes of frequency, time and geography. A band can be divided into a new channel plan, accommodating a new use while still protecting the incumbents. Additionally, new users can transmit during time periods when the incumbent is not actively using the spectrum. In some countries, regulators now allow licence holders to subdivide and trade portions of their spectrum, most often in terms of geographic areas, but also potentially for sub-bands of spectrum. In theory, this gives operators greater flexibility to either use or trade their spectrum rights, but regulators often find trading to be difficult to implement and complex in terms of ongoing oversight and regulation.Meanwhile, new technologies are being developed to help augment these legacy sharing methods. “Smart” antenna technologies help to focus and sharpen the directionality of transmissions, improving conditions for sharing. Small cells can be used to generate greater frequency re-use, multiplying the use of a particular spectrum band to allow greater capacity and access in congested areas. Databases have been developed to incorporate geo-location capabilities, along with more static technical data, allowing new users to share spectrum by using unoccupied channels or frequencies in geographic areas where incumbents are present. Greater demand for sharing, coupled with these technology enablers, is breeding experimentation in new, often hybrid, ways to license shared spectrum bands. One technique for sharing is the hybrid or “heterogeneous” use of licensed operator networks, combined with unlicensed (e.g., Wi-Fi) spectrum use. Known as “operator off-loading,” this technique allows cellular network operators to direct data traffic from consumers onto small cells – even directly to the Internet via unlicensed RLANs – to avoid over-burdening their macro-cell networks in high-data-use areas. Trends in Telecommunicaiton Reform 2015 xi