SELECTION AND USE OF PRECISE FREQUENCY AND TIME SYSTEMS
PREFACE
Introduction by Radiocommunication Study Group 7 Chairman
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Handbook
Glossary
1 Introduction
2 Definitions
Chapter 1 … Introduction and basic concepts
1.1 Historical sketch
1.2 Basic principles of frequency standards
1.2.1 Quartz crystal frequency standards
1.2.2 Atomic frequency standards
1.3 Basic metrological concepts
1.3.1 Frequency stability
1.3.2 Accuracy
1.3.3 Reproducibility, resettability
References
Chapter 2 … Available frequency and time sources
Overview of Chapter 2
Part A … Local frequency and time sources
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Quartz crystal frequency standards
2.2.1 The resonator
2.2.2 The oscillator
2.3 The rubidium gas cell frequency standard
2.4 The hydrogen maser
2.5 The cæsium beam frequency standard
Part B … Steering references
2.6 Introduction
2.7 Factors to be considered in the selection and use of alternative time-and-frequency dissemination services and ...
2.8 Comparisons of alternative sources and dissemination techniques for precise time-and-frequency references
2.9 Additional information relating to the use of the various alternative services, systems, and techniques
References
Bibliography
Chapter 3 … Characterisation: frequency domain, time domain
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Model of the oscillator
3.2.1 The phasor model and the analytic signal
3.2.2 The low-noise oscillator
3.2.3 Spectrum of the low-noise oscillator
3.2.4 The high-noise oscillator
3.2.5 Spectrum of the high-noise oscillator
3.2.6 Effect of frequency multiplication
3.2.7 Demodulation of the noise processes
3.2.8 Standard definition of noise processes
3.2.9 Multiplicative and additive noise
3.2.10 Polynomial model
3.3 Characterisation: definitions and methods
3.3.1 Spectral domain
3.3.2 Time domain
3.3.3 Environmental
3.4 A bridge to the next Chapter
3.5 Appendix: Random processes
3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Definition of a random process
3.5.3 Stationary random processes
3.5.4 Non-stationary random processes
3.5.5 Auto-correlation function
3.5.6 Power spectral density
3.5.7 Linear filtering of random processes
References
Chapter 4 … Measurement techniques (Metrology)
Introduction
4.1 Direct measurements of time (phase) and frequency
4.1.1 Direct measurements of time (phase)
4.1.2 Direct measurements of frequency
4.2 Heterodyne measurements of frequency and phase (time)
4.2.1 Heterodyne measurements of phase (time)
4.2.2 Heterodyne measurements of frequency
4.2.3 Heterodyne measurements of PM noise
4.2.4 Dual mixer time measurement systems
4.2.5 Picket-fence based measurement systems
4.2.6 Digital techniques for frequency and PM measurements
4.2.7 Three-cornered-hat measurements
4.2.8 Cross-correlation measurement systems
4.3 Single oscillator measurements of frequency and PM noise
4.3.1 Delay line measurements of frequency and PM noise
4.4 Measurements of AM noise
References
Chapter 5 … Characteristics of various frequency standards
5.1 Definitions and discussion: measures and implications
5.1.1 The characterisation of random processes
5.1.2 Systematic effects
5.2 Characteristics of various frequency sources [CCIR, 1990]
References
Chapter 6 … Time Scales
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Universal time
6.1.2 Ephemeris Time
6.1.3 International Atomic Time
6.1.4 Coordinated Universal Time
6.2 Time scales in general relativity
6.2.1 Coordinate systems in general relativity
6.2.2 The 1991 IAU Resolution A4
6.2.3 International Atomic Time
6.2.4 Other coordinate time scales
6.3 Generation of time scales
6.3.1 Expected qualities
6.3.2 Timing data
6.3.3 Stability algorithm
6.3.4 Accuracy of the scale interval of a time scale
6.3.5 Examples
6.4 Dissemination of time scales
6.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7 … Uses of frequency sources
7.1 Use of frequency sources in science and technology
7.2 Metrology
7.2.1 Accuracy comparison between the standard of time and those of the other basic quantities
7.2.2 Relations between the unit of time and other units
7.3 Fundamental and applied physics
7.3.1 g, Gravity acceleration
7.3.2 GM, Gravitational constant times earth mass
7.3.3 The Earth gravitational field
7.3.4 Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and Quasi-VLBI
7.4 Positioning and navigation
7.4.1 Conical navigation
7.4.2 Circular or spherical navigation
7.4.3 Hyperbolic navigation
7.4.4 Hyperbolae, hyperboloids and their properties
7.4.5 Accuracy requirements for the frequency standards used in navigation systems
7.5 Telecommunications
7.5.1 Analogue systems
7.5.2 Digital systems
7.6 Other applications
7.6.1 Automotive applications
7.6.2 Electrical power systems and compressed gas dispatching
7.6.3 Instrumentation
7.6.4 Doppler radar
References
Bibliography
Chapter 8 … Operational experience, problems, pitfalls
8.1 Frequency and Time Tools
8.1.1 Choice of a reference
8.1.2 Tools for operational use
8.2 Data and examples from operational experience
8.2.1 Frequency and time standards
8.2.2 Examples of problems
8.2.3 Frequency and time comparisons
8.2.4 Other data, system set-up, and processing ideas and problems
8.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 … Future prospects
9.1 Introduction
9.2 General overview
9.3 Gas cell devices
9.4 Cæsium beam standards
9.5 Hydrogen masers
9.6 Trapped ion standards
9.7 Cæsium fountain
9.8 Quartz oscillators
9.9 Oscillator stabilised to GPS
9.10 Oscillator stabilised with cooled sapphire resonator
9.11 Optical frequency standards
9.12 Summary
Chapter 10 … Conclusions
10.1 General observations
10.2 Clocks and oscillators
10.3 Measurement methods and characterisation
10.4 Time scales, coordination, and dissemination
10.5 Realities