• HANDBOOK ON RADIOMETEOROLOGY PREFACE
  • PREFACE
  • Contents
  • CHAPTER 1 - Introduction
    • 1.1 Purpose of the Handbook on Radiometeorology
    • 1.2 Applicable texts
    • 1.3 Cross-reference table
  • CHAPTER 2 - Physical characteristics of the atmosphere
    • 2.1 Variability of water vapour and oxygen density at ground level
    • 2.2 Variability of the height profile of water vapour
    • 2.3 Precipitation characteristics 2.3.1 Types of precipitation
      • 2.3.1 Types of precipitation
      • 2.3.2 Drop size distribution
      • 2.3.3 Hydrometeor shape and orientation
      • 2.3.4 Terminal velocity
      • 2.3.5 Drop temperature
    • 2.4 Statistical characteristics of point rainfall intensity 2.4.1 Cumulative distribution of rainfall intensity
      • 2.4.1 Cumulative distribution of rainfall intensity
      • 2.4.2 Yearly variability of the cumulative rainfall rate distribution
      • 2.4.3 Conversion of rainfall rate distributions to equivalent one-minute statistics
      • 2.4.4 Models for the rainfall rate distribution
      • 2.4.5 Statistics of rainfall event duration
    • 2.5 Horizontal structure of rainfall
      • 2.5.1 Application to scattering by rain
      • 2.5.2 Application to attenuation by rain
    • 2.6 Vertical structure of precipitation
      • 2.6.1 Vertical variation of reflectivity
      • 2.6.2 Vertical variation of specific attenuation
      • 2.6.3 The 0°C isotherm height and the rain height
    • 2.7 Characteristics of fog and clouds
    • 2.8 Sand and dust storms
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 3 - Atmospheric refraction
    • 3.1 Influence of the atmosphere on radiowave propagation
    • 3.2 Refractive index and refractivity
    • 3.3 Models of the atmospheric refractive index
      • 3.3.1 Linear models
      • 3.3.2 Exponential models
      • 3.3.3 Other models
    • 3.4 Departures from the models
    • 3.5 Refractivity at ground level
      • 3.5.1 Monthly averages of ground refractivity
      • 3.5.2 Seasonal and year-to-year variability of ground refractivity
    • 3.6 Refractivity gradients
      • 3.6.1 Models for refractivity gradient distribution
      • 3.6.2 Statistical information on refractivity gradients
      • 3.6.3 Correlation between ground refractivity and refractivity gradient
      • 3.6.4 Equivalent refractivity gradient along a path
    • 3.7 Refractivity structures at meso and macroscales
      • 3.7.1 Ducting layers – definition and experimental observations
      • 3.7.2 Sub-refractive conditions
    • 3.8 Horizontal refractivity gradients
    • 3.9 Techniques of refractive index measurements
      • 3.9.1 Direct measurements – microwave refractometers
      • 3.9.2 Indirect measurements - measurement of meteorological quantities
      • 3.9.3 Measurement of vertical profiles
      • 3.9.4 Measurement of vertical and horizontal structures
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 4 - Influence of refraction on propagation
    • 4.1 Introduction
      • 4.1.1 Ray approximation
      • 4.1.2 Modified refractive index and effective Earth radius
    • 4.2 Refractive effects in normal conditions 4.2.1 Sub-refraction and super-refraction
      • 4.2.1 Sub-refraction and super-refraction
      • 4.2.2 Apparent elevation angle
      • 4.2.3 Radioelectric path length
      • 4.2.4 Beam spreading on slant paths
      • 4.2.5 Range rate error
    • 4.3 Propagation during sub-refractive conditions
      • 4.3.1 Effective Earth radius factor for the path, Ke
      • 4.3.2 Prediction of the minimum value of
    • 4.4 Propagation with super-refractive layers
      • 4.4.1 Qualitative description by ray tracing
      • 4.4.2 Ducting effects
      • 4.4.3 Multipath propagation
      • 4.4.4 Angle-of-arrival variations
    • 4.5 Representation of the propagation channel during super-refractive conditions
      • 4.5.1 Multi-ray model
      • 4.5.2 Theoretical considerations on single-frequency statistics
      • 4.5.3 Models for the multipath transfer function
    • 4.6 Simplified representations of the propagation channel 4.6.1 Ray models 4.6.1.1 Two-ray and fixed-delay model
      • 4.6.1 Ray models
      • 4.6.2 Parametric representation of amplitude distortion
    • 4.7 Signal scintillations due to atmospheric turbulence
      • 4.7.1 Amplitude scintillation
      • 4.7.2 Angle-of-arrival scintillations
    • 4.8 Tropospheric scatter propagation
      • 4.8.1 Modelling of long-term variations of field strength
      • 4.8.2 Troposcatter transfer function
      • Annex 1 - Statistical prediction models of scintillation standard deviation and amplitude
        • A1.1 Introduction
        • A1.2 Prediction models of the scintillation standard deviation A1.2.1 Karasawa model
        • A1.3 Prediction models of the distribution of the scintillation amplitude A1.3.1 Karasawa and ITU-R models
        • REFERENCES OF ANNEX 1
  • CHAPTER 5 - Single-particle scattering
    • 5.1 General considerations
      • 5.1.1 Integral representation of the field
      • 5.1.2 Scattering of a plane wave in the far field. The optical theorem 5.1.2.1 Scattering amplitude
    • 5.2 Solution methods 5.2.1 Analytical methods
      • 5.2.1 Analytical methods
      • 5.2.2 Approximate numerical methods
    • 5.3 Numerical implementation
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 6 - Attenuation and dispersion by atmospheric gases
    • 6.1 Physical background of gaseous absorption
    • 6.2 Calculation of gaseous attenuation through the Earth's atmosphere
    • 6.3 Algorithms found in Annex 2 of Recommendation ITU-R P.676-9 for specificattenuation in the frequency range 1-350 GHz
    • 6.4 Algorithms presented in Annex 2 for slant-path attenuation in the frequency range1-350 GHz
    • 6.5 Effects of dispersion due to atmospheric gases
    • 6.6 Comparison of predictions from various gaseous absorption models withmeasurements
      • 6.6.1 Ground-based radiometric measurements
      • 6.6.2 Ground-based Fourier transform spectrometers
      • 6.6.3 Conclusion
    • 6.7 Attenuation of infrared and visible radiation
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 7 - Attenuation by atmospheric particles
    • 7.1 Prediction of specific attenuation from rain intensity data
    • 7.2 Attenuation over propagation links of finite extent
      • 7.2.1 Effects of spatial non-uniformity in rain
      • 7.2.2 Earth-space links
    • 7.3 Prediction of attenuation from radio propagation data
      • 7.3.1 Single-frequency scaling: constant attenuation ratio
      • 7.3.2 Single-frequency scaling: variable attenuation ratio
      • 7.3.3 Multi-frequency scaling
      • 7.3.4 Instantaneous scaling: single frequency
      • 7.3.5 Path length scaling of rain attenuation statistics for line-of-sight links
    • 7.4 Variability of rain attenuation statistics
    • 7.5 Radiometer and radar measurements
    • 7.6 Propagation delay due to precipitation
    • 7.7 Attenuation by hydrometeors other than rain
      • 7.7.1 Aerosols, fog, clouds, hail and snow
    • 7.8 Attenuation by sand and dust storms
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 8 Radio emissivity of atmosphere and ground
    • 8.1 Introduction
    • 8.2 Radiative transfer 8.2.1 Fundamentals
    • 8.2.2 Radiative transfer equation
    • 8.2.3 Brightness temperature
    • 8.3 Atmospheric emissivity
    • 8.4 Ground emissivity
    • 8.5 Radiometric estimation of attenuation and path length 8.5.1 General
    • 8.5.2 Radiometric estimation of attenuation
    • 8.5.3 Estimation of propagation path delay
    • 8.6 Passive remote sensing of atmospheric composition 8.6.1 General
    • 8.6.2 Atmospheric water content
    • 8.6.3 Radiometric retrieval of atmospheric water content
    • 8.6.4 Retrieval and scaling coefficients
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 9 - Cross-polarization and anisotropy
    • 9.1 Mathematical background
      • 9.1.1 Polarization state of a wave
      • 9.1.2 Orthogonal polarizations
      • 9.1.3 Dual-polarization transfer channel
      • 9.1.4 Simplified medium models
    • 9.2 Microphysics of the depolarizing medium
      • 9.2.1 Existence of the Principal Planes
      • 9.2.2 Equi-aligned raindrop-axes model
      • 9.2.3 Raindrops with Gaussian distribution of orientations
      • 9.2.4 Ice-needles in clouds
      • 9.2.5 Ice depolarization during rainfall
    • 9.3 Model parameters assessment
    • REFERENCES
  • CHAPTER 10 Statistical aspects of modelling
    • 10.1 Variability of atmospheric processes
      • 10.1.1 Definitions
      • 10.1.2 Concepts and models
    • 10.2 Worst-month statistics
      • 10.2.1 The ITU-R definition
      • 10.2.2 Calculation method using
      • 10.2.3 Calculation method using
      • 10.2.4 Variability aspects
    • 10.3 Annual statistics
    • 10.3.1 Crane model
    • 10.3.2 Inter-annual variability of rainfall rate and rain attenuation statistics
    • 10.4 Risk and reliability concepts
      • 10.4.1 Risk analysis 10.4.1.1 First approach
      • 10.4.2 Return period
      • 10.4.3 Mean time to failure
      • 10.4.4 Other considerations
      • 10.4.5 Relation to services
      • 10.4.6 Risk of occurrence of outages
    • 10.5 Conclusions
    • Annex 10.A.1 - Rank-order statistics
    • ANNEX 10.A.2 - Determination of C0 and C1 from measured data
    • Annex 10.A.3 - Risk assessment Examples of outage and fade margin calculation associated with risk or confidence
      • a) Outage calculation
      • b) Fade margin calculation
    • REFERENCES