Handbook on Spectrum monitoring Edition of 2026
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
Acknowledgements
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 – Spectrum monitoring as a key function of a spectrum management system
     1.1 Overview of spectrum management
          1.1.1 Legal and regulatory framework for national spectrum management
          1.1.2 ITU rules, regulations and associated standards
          1.1.3 Spectrum planning and allocation
          1.1.4 Spectrum engineering
          1.1.5 Frequency coordination and notification
          1.1.6 Licensing, assignment and billing
          1.1.7 Spectrum monitoring
          1.1.8 Inspection of radio installations
          1.1.9 Law enforcement
     1.2 Spectrum management considerations
          1.2.1 Efficient use of spectrum
          1.2.2 Spectrum sharing
          1.2.3 Economic aspects
     1.3 Spectrum monitoring goals
          1.3.1 Monitoring for compliance with national rules
               1.3.1.1 Verification of technical and operational parameters
               1.3.1.2 Resolution of interference
               1.3.1.3 Detection and identification of unauthorized transmitters
          1.3.2 Monitoring to aid spectrum management policy
               1.3.2.1 Provision of spectrum usage (occupancy) data
               1.3.2.2 An aid to new assignments
               1.3.2.3 An aid to developing better management models
               1.3.2.4 An aid to dealing with complaints and queries
               1.3.2.5 An aid to categorizing and interpreting interference and propagation effects
               1.3.2.6 An aid to spectrum sharing
               1.3.2.7 Database verification and correction
     1.4 Spectrum monitoring tasks
          1.4.1 Tasks derived from the Radio Regulations
          1.4.2 Tasks on a national basis
          1.4.3 Co-operation of radio monitoring and inspection services
          1.4.4 Co-operation of radio monitoring with other bodies
          1.4.5 Measurement tasks and essential equipment
     1.5 Relationship between spectrum monitoring and spectrum management
     1.6 International monitoring
          1.6.1 Centralising office and international cooperation
          1.6.2 The international monitoring system
          1.6.3 Coordination role of the Bureau
          1.6.4 Use of international monitoring data by the Bureau
               1.6.4.1 Assistance in the clearance of unauthorized or out-of-band operations
               1.6.4.2 Assistance to administrations in cases of harmful interference
               1.6.4.3 Guidance to administrations in selecting frequencies
               1.6.4.4 Preparation for radiocommunication conferences
          1.6.5 International monitoring programmes
               1.6.5.1 The regular programme
               1.6.5.2 Special programmes
          1.6.6 Global monitoring coverage
     1.7 Collaboration among monitoring stations of different countries
          1.7.1 Collaboration below 30 MHz
          1.7.2 Collaboration above 30 MHz
          1.7.3 Collaboration on the monitoring of space emissions
     Annex 1   to Chapter 1   Agreement, protocol and model cross border agreement for direct co-operation among radio monitoring stations
     PROTOCOL  Regarding the Agreement of 1993 among the Administrations of Germany, Switzerland and France on the direct co-operation  between radio monitoring stations
     MODEL CROSS BORDER AGREEMENT
     References
CHAPTER 2 – Organization, Physical Structures and Personnel
     2.1 Introduction
     2.2 Organization of the monitoring service
          2.2.1 Organizational structure
          2.2.2 Geographic deployment of monitoring stations
               2.2.2.1 HF range and below
               2.2.2.2 VHF/UHF range
               2.2.2.3 SHF and above
               2.2.2.4 Satellite signals
     2.3 Monitoring operations and processes
          2.3.1 Instructions and forms
          2.3.2 Schedules
          2.3.3 Case documentation
          2.3.4 Typical administrative procedures
               2.3.4.1 Procedures for responding to interference complaints
                    2.3.4.1.1 Receiving interference complaints
                    2.3.4.1.2 Preliminary diagnosis and localization of the source of the emission
                    2.3.4.1.3 Measurement of emissions and possible interference sources
                    2.3.4.1.4 Measurement evaluation and follow-on actions
                    2.3.4.1.5 Final check-up
               2.3.4.2 Procedures for identification and disconnection of unauthorised transmissions
               2.3.4.3 Procedures for maintenance, calibration, and repair
                    2.3.4.3.1 General considerations
                    2.3.4.3.2 Functional test procedures
                         2.3.4.3.2.1 Basic
                         2.3.4.3.2.2 Built in test (BIT)
                         2.3.4.3.2.3 Enhanced functional tests
                    2.3.4.3.3 Scheduled maintenance
                    2.3.4.3.4 Calibration
                    2.3.4.3.5 Repair
                    2.3.4.3.6 Spare parts
                    2.3.4.3.7 Software maintenance
                    2.3.4.3.8 Management of the system maintenance information
     2.4 Support management system
          2.4.1 Database
          2.4.2 Reporting system, statistical analyses
          2.4.3 Working plan
          2.4.4 Resource planning
     2.5 Siting, buildings, facilities
          2.5.1 Siting of monitoring stations
               2.5.1.1 General considerations
               2.5.1.2 Desirable minimum site criteria for a station
               2.5.1.3 Additional criteria for siting stations equipped with direction finders (DF)
               2.5.1.4 Protection from strong transmitter fields
               2.5.1.5 Protection from local computer systems
               2.5.1.6 Land requirements
               2.5.1.7 Roadways
               2.5.1.8 Fencing
          2.5.2 Buildings and auxiliary facilities
               2.5.2.1 Buildings
                    2.5.2.1.1 Monitoring buildings for manned monitoring sites
                    2.5.2.1.2 Allocation of space
                    2.5.2.1.3 Acoustic treatment
                    2.5.2.1.4 Shielded rooms
                    2.5.2.1.5 Cable ducts
                    2.5.2.1.6 Building or room for emergency power plant
                    2.5.2.1.7 Machine shop, vehicle storage building
               2.5.2.2 Protective enclosures for remote, unattended monitoring operation
               2.5.2.3 Utilities, power supplies and other installations
                    2.5.2.3.1 Electrical power
                    2.5.2.3.2 Uninterruptible power system
                    2.5.2.3.3 Emergency lighting
                    2.5.2.3.4 Telecommunications
                    2.5.2.3.5 Heating and air conditioning
                    2.5.2.3.6 Fire warning and extinguishing systems
               2.5.2.4 Lightning protection
                    2.5.2.4.1 Lightning effect
                    2.5.2.4.2 Protection against direct lightning strike
                    2.5.2.4.3 Protection against induced lightning
                    2.5.2.4.4 Protection process
                    2.5.2.4.5 Earthing and screening
                    2.5.2.4.6 Antenna protections
                    2.5.2.4.7 Maintenance of lightning protection system
          2.5.3 Sources of interference affecting the operation of monitoring stations
               2.5.3.1 General principles
               2.5.3.2 Sources of interference
               2.5.3.3 Remedial action
          2.5.4 Site survey
     Annex 1  to Section 2.5  Site survey checklist
     Comprehensive evaluation report
     2.6 Personnel
          2.6.1 General
          2.6.2 Categories of personnel
               2.6.2.1 Management
               2.6.2.2 Operators
               2.6.2.3 Technical/maintenance service
               2.6.2.4 Clerical staff
          2.6.3 Training
               2.6.3.1 Introduction
                    2.6.3.1.1 Identifying requirements and planning the course
                    2.6.3.1.2 Review and evaluation
                    2.6.3.1.3 Correction measures
               2.6.3.2 Training methods and implementations
               2.6.3.3 Skills required of the spectrum monitoring staff
               2.6.3.4 Worldwide available training facilities for radio monitoring
                    2.6.3.4.1 Training provided by ITU
                    2.6.3.4.2 Training facilities in the United States of America
                    2.6.3.4.3 International training programme for spectrum monitoring in Japan
                    2.6.3.4.4 International training programs of radio monitoring in Korea (Rep. of)
     Annex 1  to Section 2.6  Aspects of spectrum monitoring training
     References
CHAPTER 3 – Monitoring stations and equipment
     3.1 Introduction
          3.1.1 General considerations
          3.1.2 Station equipment networks
     3.2 Types of monitoring station
          3.2.1 Fixed monitoring stations
               3.2.1.1 Fixed station VLF, LF, MF, HF
               3.2.1.2 Fixed station VHF/UHF
               3.2.1.3 Compact Monitoring Stations VHF/UHF/SHF
          3.2.2 Mobile monitoring stations
               3.2.2.1 Navigation and positioning systems
               3.2.2.2 Land vehicles monitoring platforms
                    3.2.2.2.1 General considerations
                    3.2.2.2.2 Antennas for mobile monitoring stations
                    3.2.2.2.3 Requirements to be fulfilled by the vehicle
                    3.2.2.2.4 Power supply
                    3.2.2.2.5 Example of a vehicle concept
               3.2.2.3 Commercial drone monitoring platforms
               3.2.2.4 Manned airborne-based monitoring platforms
                    3.2.2.4.1 Operations of airborne monitoring platforms
                    3.2.2.4.2 Applications – Examples
                    3.2.2.4.3 Aircraft operational requirements
                    3.2.2.4.4 Aircraft technical requirements
                    3.2.2.4.5 Antennas
                    3.2.2.4.6 General requirements for on-board systems
                    3.2.2.4.7 Aircraft radio monitoring platform set-up criteria
               3.2.2.5 Maritime monitoring platforms
               3.2.2.6 Satellite-based monitoring platforms
          3.2.3 Transportable monitoring stations
          3.2.4 Additional support equipment
               3.2.4.1 Portable and handheld monitoring equipment
               3.2.4.2 Monitoring sensors
     3.3 Monitoring and measurement antennas
          3.3.1 General considerations
          3.3.2 Influence of interference environment
          3.3.3 Suitable antenna configurations
          3.3.4 Antennas for VLF, LF, MF and HF
               3.3.4.1 VLF/LF/MF/HF omnidirectional types
               3.3.4.2 VLF/LF/MF/HF active antennas
               3.3.4.3 HF directional antenna types
          3.3.5 Antennas for VHF, UHF and SHF
               3.3.5.1 VHF and UHF omnidirectional antenna types
               3.3.5.2 VHF and UHF DF antenna types
               3.3.5.3 VHF and UHF directional types
               3.3.5.4 Antennas for frequencies above 3 000 MHz
               3.3.5.5 SHF band
          3.3.6 Siting of antennas
          3.3.7 Transmission lines and distribution systems
               3.3.7.1 Transmission lines
               3.3.7.2 Distribution systems
     References
     Bibliography
     3.4 Monitoring receivers
          3.4.1 General considerations
          3.4.2 RF Front-end / Tuner
          3.4.3 Digital Processing Sections
          3.4.4 Frequency reference sources for receivers
          3.4.5 Key performance characteristics of monitoring receivers
          3.4.6 Specifications for typical monitoring receivers
     References
     3.5 Direction finders
          3.5.1 General considerations
          3.5.2 Antennas
          3.5.3 Equipment
          3.5.4 Number of receivers
               3.5.4.1 Single-channel systems
                    3.5.4.1.1 Simple single-channel DF systems
                    3.5.4.1.2 Interferometer or multiplexed single-channel DF systems
               3.5.4.2 Multi-channel systems (one reference channel and one or more switched sampling channels)
               3.5.4.3 N-channel systems (N = number receiver channels = number antennas)
          3.5.5 Bearing processing
          3.5.6 Typical specifications for DF systems
     3.6 Additional measuring equipment and standards
          3.6.1 Time and frequency standards
               3.6.1.1 Global Navigation Satellite System disciplined time and frequency references
          3.6.2 Spectrum analysers
               3.6.2.1 Swept spectrum analysers
               3.6.2.2 FFT analysers
               3.6.2.3 Vector signal analysers
               3.6.2.4 Real-Time Spectrum Analyser (RTSA)
          3.6.3 Handheld (HH) Vector network analyser (VNA) and cable antenna tester
     3.7 Digital signal processing equipment and associated software
          3.7.1 Introduction
          3.7.2 Station functions
          3.7.3 Monitoring station equipment and operation
          3.7.4 Typical modes of equipment operation
               3.7.4.1 Interactive or real time operation
               3.7.4.2 Automatic operation, scheduled and background
                    3.7.4.2.1 Scheduling and prioritizing
          3.7.5 Examples of equipment operation
               3.7.5.1 Scheduling and programming of automatic measurements
               3.7.5.2 Broadband spectrum analysis
               3.7.5.3 Real-time fast spectrum scanning, instantaneous DF and operator alerts
          3.7.6 Automatic violation detection
          3.7.7 Reports in DSP-based systems
     3.8 Equipment data interface
          3.8.1 Data connections
          3.8.2 Instrument control protocols
               3.8.2.1 VISA/SCPI
               3.8.2.2 VITA-49 and DIFI
               3.8.2.3 NMEA
               3.8.2.4 Vendor specific protocols
          3.8.3 Controller host access and data transfer
               3.8.3.1 Remote access to monitoring stations
               3.8.3.2 Data transfer for automated operation
               3.8.3.3 Audiovisual streaming
               References
               Bibliography
CHAPTER 4 – Data management, automation and networking
     4.1 Introduction to data management and automation
          4.1.1 Data lifecycle
          4.1.2 Analytical capability and automation
          4.1.3 Chapter organization
     4.2 Spectrum monitoring network
          4.2.1 Core spectrum monitoring network elements
               4.2.1.1 Connections within the monitoring station (LAN)
               4.2.1.2 Connections between monitoring stations and control centres (WAN)
          4.2.2 Spectrum monitoring network management
               4.2.2.1 Cyber security
               4.2.2.2 Network observability
               4.2.2.3 Network configuration management
          4.2.3 General spectrum monitoring network architecture and cloud services
               4.2.3.1 Local, centralized and distributed architectures
               4.2.3.2 Monitoring network data flow and the edge computing paradigm
               4.2.3.3 Cloud processing and serverless architectures
               4.2.3.4 Considerations for adoption of cloud services in spectrum monitoring
     4.3 Data collection
          4.3.1 Spectrum monitoring data collection
          4.3.2 Manual data collection
          4.3.3 Automated data collection process
     4.4 Store, publish, archive, reuse and delete
          4.4.1 Data formats
               4.4.1.1 ITU standardized data formats
               4.4.1.2 Open data formats
               4.4.1.3 Proprietary and other data formats
          4.4.2 Data transfer and storage
               4.4.2.1 Local and remote storage
               4.4.2.2 Storage levels and data availability
               4.4.2.3 Data integration and architectures
          4.4.3 Data management
               4.4.3.1 Data policies and governance
               4.4.3.2 Metadata, standards and interoperability
               4.4.3.3 Data catalogue and archive
               4.4.3.4 Data discard strategies
     4.5 Process and analysis
          4.5.1 Signal conditioning and structuring
               4.5.1.1 Signal conditioning (or pre-processing)
               4.5.1.2 Signal formatting
               4.5.1.3 Signal detection and segmentation
               4.5.1.4 Feature extraction
          4.5.2 Intelligent analysis and inference
               4.5.2.1 Machine learning and deep learning
               4.5.2.2 Supervised learning
               4.5.2.3 Unsupervised learning
               4.5.2.4 Reinforcement Learning
          4.5.3 Application of ML techniques in Radio Monitoring
               4.5.3.1 Clustering
                    4.5.3.1.1 Use case: grouping unknown transmitters in a wideband spectrum scan
               4.5.3.2 Regression
                    4.5.3.2.1 Use case: predicting interference level in an industrial zone
               4.5.3.3 Classification
                    4.5.3.3.1 Use Case: automatic modulation classification (AMC) for spectrum enforcement
               4.5.3.4 Anomaly detection
                    4.5.3.4.1 Use Case: detecting jamming signals in the GNSS L1 band
                    4.5.3.4.2 Use Case: Foundation model enabled spectrum anomaly detection
               4.5.3.5 Prediction
                    4.5.3.5.1 Use Case: Forecasting future spectrum occupancy in the LTE band
                    4.5.3.5.2 Spectrum map construction using embodied intelligence
               4.5.3.6 Angle-of-arrival (AoA) estimation and enhancement using ML
                    4.5.3.6.1 Use Case: ResNet-based pseudo-MUSIC AoA estimation
     4.6 Data usage and intelligent interaction
          4.6.1 Human–machine interaction and usability standards
          4.6.2 Visualization and decision support
          4.6.3 AI-augmented data usage
               4.6.3.1 Stand-alone LLMs (Prompt-only)
               4.6.3.2 Retrieval-augmented generation
               4.6.3.3 Reason-and-Act (ReAct)
               4.6.3.4 Model Context Protocol (MCP) and agent-to-agent interaction
               4.6.3.5 Use Case: Radio monitoring coverage prediction system based on LLM
          4.6.4 Human–AI collaboration and future directions
     4.7 References
CHAPTER 5 – Measurements
     Introduction
     5.1 Practical considerations on measurements
          5.1.1 Basic concept of measurement
               5.1.1.1 Attribute or phenomenon to measure
               5.1.1.2 Conditions of the measurement operations
               5.1.1.3 Measurement system
               5.1.1.4 Measurement procedure
               5.1.1.5 Analysis of the results and measurement uncertainties
          5.1.2 Measurement environment
               5.1.2.1 Laboratory environment
               5.1.2.2 In situ measurement
          5.1.3 RF measurement domains
               5.1.3.1 Time and frequency domains
               5.1.3.2 Amplitude and phase domains (vector analysis)
               5.1.3.3 FFT analysis
          5.1.4 Measurement uncertainty
     5.2 Measurement of frequency
          5.2.1 General considerations
          5.2.2 Common frequency measurement methods applied at stations for international monitoring
               5.2.2.1 Direct Lissajous method
               5.2.2.2 Frequency counter method
               5.2.2.3 Swept spectrum analyser method
               5.2.2.4 Instantaneous frequency measurement method (IFM method)
                    5.2.2.4.1 Principle
                    5.2.2.4.2 Performance of IFM techniques
               5.2.2.5 FFT method
          5.2.3 Crystal-controlled stage of frequency measurement equipment against a standard frequency
     Bibliography
     5.3 Measurement of RF level
          5.3.1 Introduction
          5.3.2 Measurement detectors
          5.3.3 Level definitions
          5.3.4 Influence of modulation
          5.3.5 Necessary measurement bandwidth
          5.3.6 Measurement procedure with a measurement receiver
          5.3.7 Measurement procedure with swept spectrum analyser
          5.3.8 Measurement with an FFT analyser
          5.3.9 Correction for wide band signals
          5.3.10 Channel power and adjacent channel power measurement
          5.3.11 Typical problems encountered
               5.3.11.1 Unwanted signals on neighbour frequencies
               5.3.11.2 Low signal to noise ratios
               5.3.11.3 Measurements of levels below the noise floor
          5.3.12 Calibration of measurement equipment
          5.3.13 Measurement errors
     Bibliography
     5.4 Measurement of field strength and pfd
          5.4.1 General considerations
               5.4.1.1 Quantities and units of measurement
                    5.4.1.1.1 Measurement conditions
                    5.4.1.1.2 Electric and magnetic field strength
                    5.4.1.1.3 Equivalent incident field strength
                    5.4.1.1.4 Median available receiver power
                    5.4.1.1.5 Power flux-density
               5.4.1.2 Division into frequency ranges
          5.4.2 Choice of measurement sites
               5.4.2.1 Fixed installations
               5.4.2.2 Mobile installations
                    5.4.2.2.1 Stationary application
                    5.4.2.2.2 Measurements with a portable field strength meter
          5.4.3 Methods of measurement
               5.4.3.1 Measurements at a fixed measuring point
                    5.4.3.1.1 Instantaneous measurements
                    5.4.3.1.2 Short-time and long-time measurements
                    5.4.3.1.3 Measuring the spatial-distribution of the field strength
               5.4.3.2 Measurements along a route
                    5.4.3.2.1 Results of mobile field strength measurement
                    5.4.3.2.2 Necessary number of measuring points and the averaging interval
                    5.4.3.2.3 Velocity of the vehicle
                    5.4.3.2.4 Measuring antennas
                    5.4.3.2.5 Navigation and positioning systems
                    5.4.3.2.6 Measurement result collecting with data reduction
                    5.4.3.2.7 Data presentation
               5.4.3.3 Comparison of measured and calculated data
                    5.4.3.3.1 Comparison of predicted and measured field strength in FM broadcasting
                    5.4.3.3.2 Planning software and databases
                    5.4.3.3.3 Predicted field strength from remote monitoring stations
                    5.4.3.3.4 Measured signal strength from remote monitoring stations
                    5.4.3.3.5 Comparison of predicted and measured values
          5.4.4 Evaluation, processing and documentation of measurement results
               5.4.4.1 Definition of statistical parameters of field strength and pfd
               5.4.4.2 Evaluation of space and time dependency of field strength
               5.4.4.3 Example checklist for coordination data
          5.4.5 Calibration of measuring instruments and antennas
               5.4.5.1 Calibration of measuring receivers
               5.4.5.2 Calibration of the measuring antennas
                    5.4.5.2.1 Standard field method (direct calibration)
                    5.4.5.2.2 Indirect calibration of antennas
                    5.4.5.2.3 Standard antenna method (substitution method)
                    5.4.5.2.4 Standard distance or standard site method
                    5.4.5.2.5 Computation of antenna factor from dimensions and current distribution
               5.4.5.3 Calibration of fixed recording installations
          5.4.6 Field strength measurement for e.i.r.p. determination in the VHF and UHF bands
               5.4.6.1 Introduction
               5.4.6.2 Theoretical description of the expected field strength at measurement points
               5.4.6.3 Criteria for choosing measurement points
               5.4.6.4 Application of the methods
               5.4.6.5 Uncertainty
     Bibliography
     5.5 Bandwidth measurement
          5.5.1 Bandwidth definitions
               5.5.1.1 Necessary bandwidth
               5.5.1.2 Occupied bandwidth
               5.5.1.3 X-dB bandwidth
               5.5.1.4 Assigned bandwidth
          5.5.2 Bandwidth determination at monitoring stations
               5.5.2.1 Suitable measurement equipment
               5.5.2.2 Prerequisites for measuring bandwidths
               5.5.2.3 Practical considerations and limitations of the ß%-method
               5.5.2.4 Practical considerations and limitations of the x-dB method
               5.5.2.5 Comparison of the measurement methods
     References
     5.6 Modulation measurement
          5.6.1 Introduction
          5.6.2 Suitable measurement instruments
          5.6.3 Analogue modulation
               5.6.3.1 Amplitude modulation
               5.6.3.2 Frequency and phase modulation (FM/PM)
               5.6.3.3 Simultaneous measurement of AM and PM/FM
               5.6.3.4 Special analogue modulations
                    5.6.3.4.1 TV broadcast modulations
                    5.6.3.4.2 Single sideband modulation with suppressed carrier (SSB)
                    5.6.3.4.3 Independent sideband modulation (ISB)
                    5.6.3.4.4 Dynamic amplitude modulation
          5.6.4 Single carrier digital modulation
               5.6.4.1 Symbol rate
               5.6.4.2 Identification of modulation and number of constellation states
               5.6.4.3 Baseband filtering
               5.6.4.4 Modulation error
          5.6.5 Multicarrier digital modulation
               5.6.5.1 Modulation type
               5.6.5.2 Number of carriers and carrier spacing
               5.6.5.3 Symbol time
          5.6.6 Measurement errors
     Bibliography
     5.7 Radio direction-finding and transmitter localization
          5.7.1 General considerations
          5.7.2 Radio direction-finding
               5.7.2.1 Discussion of basic architecture, performance and problems
                    5.7.2.1.1 Accuracy
                    5.7.2.1.2 Sensitivity
                    5.7.2.1.3 Effect of multipath propagation and multiple sources
                    5.7.2.1.4 Effect of depolarisation
                    5.7.2.1.5 Minimum signal duration
               5.7.2.2 Different DF techniques
                    5.7.2.2.1 Rotating antenna
                    5.7.2.2.2 Doppler and pseudo-Doppler
                    5.7.2.2.3 Adcock/Watson Watt
                    5.7.2.2.4 Phase interferometer
                    5.7.2.2.5 Correlative interferometer
                    5.7.2.2.6 Advanced resolution techniques
                    5.7.2.2.7 Comparison of AOA techniques
                    5.7.2.2.8 Combined direction finding techniques
               5.7.2.3 Influence of the environment
                    5.7.2.3.1 Accuracy of bearings of DF below 30 MHz
                         5.7.2.3.1.1 Errors caused by the ionosphere
                         5.7.2.3.1.2 Errors due to siting
                    5.7.2.3.2 Accuracy of bearings of DF above 30 MHz
               5.7.2.4 Remote control networking for DF stations
          5.7.3 Location
               5.7.3.1 Triangulation and multi-angulation methods of location
                    5.7.3.1.1 General
                    5.7.3.1.2 Features of the location depending on frequency
                    5.7.3.1.3 Location calculation steps
                    5.7.3.1.4 Distribution of location uncertainty values
                    5.7.3.1.5 Map display
               5.7.3.2 Time difference of arrival method (TDOA)
                    5.7.3.2.1 General principles
                    5.7.3.2.2 TDOA Implementations
                    5.7.3.2.3 Factors affecting accuracy
                    5.7.3.2.4 System considerations
               5.7.3.3 AOA homing and standoff methods
               5.7.3.4 Single site location method for HF emissions
                    5.7.3.4.1 Estimation of the ionosphere height
                    5.7.3.4.2 Localization software
                    5.7.3.4.3 Program generating predictions
                    5.7.3.4.4 Location range calculation
                    5.7.3.4.5 Validity
                    5.7.3.4.6 SSL elevation angle
               5.7.3.5 Comparison of location methods
               5.7.3.6 Combination of localization methods
     References
     5.8 Signal analysis and transmitter identification
          5.8.1 Introduction
          5.8.2 Capabilities needed to perform signal analysis
          5.8.3 The process of signal analysis
               5.8.3.1 Analysis of signal external parameters
               5.8.3.2 Analysis of signal internal parameters
               5.8.3.3 Demodulating the signal
               5.8.3.4 Decoding the signal
               5.8.3.5 Summary of analysis
          5.8.4 Signal dynamics and analysis in the time domain
          5.8.5 Advanced tools for signal parameter extraction
          5.8.6 Correlation techniques
               5.8.6.1 Cross-correlation techniques for interference analysis
               5.8.6.2 Intercorrelation with a test signal
          5.8.7 Traditional signal identification methods
               5.8.7.1 Call sign recognition
               5.8.7.2 Transmitters with no call sign
               5.8.7.3 Parametric identification
               5.8.7.4 Signal aided identification
               1 Formation of ship station and coast station selective call numbers
               2 Maritime mobile service identities in the maritime services
               3 Maritime mobile service identities in the maritime mobile-satellite service
               4 Automatic transmitter identification system
               5 EPIRB identities
     Annex 1 to Section 5.8 Selective calling in the maritime mobile and maritime mobile-satellite services
     Annex 2 to Section 5.8 Supplementary code characters, sixth and seventh symbols
     Bibliography
     5.9 Pulse measurements
          5.9.1 Introduction
          5.9.2 Basic pulse parameters
          5.9.3 Measurements in the time domain
          5.9.4 Measurements in the frequency domain
          5.9.5 Special pulse characteristics
          5.9.6 Equipment requirements
     5.10 Spectrum occupancy measurements and evaluation
          5.10.1 The term spectrum occupancy
          5.10.2 Measurement considerations and evaluation options
          5.10.3 Suitable receivers
          5.10.4 Site considerations
          5.10.5 Basic principles and measurement parameters
               5.10.5.1 Sampling principles
               5.10.5.2 Recording principles
               5.10.5.3 Threshold setting
               5.10.5.4 Statistical confidence in occupancy measurements
               5.10.5.5 Limitations and possible solutions
               5.10.5.6 Specialized scan methods
                    5.10.5.6.1 Slow channel scanning
                    5.10.5.6.2 Static channel monitoring
          5.10.6 Notes on frequency ranges
               5.10.6.1 Frequencies below 30 MHz
               5.10.6.2 Frequencies above 30 MHz
          5.10.7 Storage, presentation and analysis of collected data
          5.10.8 Exchange of data
          5.10.9 Examples
     Bibliography
     5.11 Coverage measurements
          5.11.1  Introduction
          5.11.2  Ways of taking measurements
          5.11.3 Basic considerations
               5.11.3.1 Information gathering
               5.11.3.2 Planning and design of measurement setup
               5.11.3.3 Execution phase
               5.11.3.4 Data evaluation and reporting
     Bibliography
     5.12 Unwanted emission measurements
          5.12.1 Introduction
          5.12.2 Definitions and terminology
          5.12.3 Frequency ranges of unwanted emissions
          5.12.4 Measurements in the spurious domain
          5.12.5 Measurements in the out-of-band domain
               5.12.5.1 Adjacent channel power measurements
               5.12.5.2 Spectrum mask measurements
               5.12.5.3  Fixed-levels measurements
          5.12.6 Equipment requirements, setup and measurement limitations
          5.12.7 Optimizing the dynamic range of the measurement setup
          5.12.8 Required equipment
          5.12.9 Practical aspects of the measurement
     Bibliography
CHAPTER 6 – Specific monitoring systems and procedures
     6.1 Monitoring of spacecraft emissions
          6.1.1 Tasks and measurements to be performed
               6.1.1.1 Types of measurements
               6.1.1.2 Types of interference caused by satellite systems
          6.1.2 Measurement techniques
               6.1.2.1 General
               6.1.2.2 Frequency measurements
                    6.1.2.2.1 The Doppler shift effect
                    6.1.2.2.2 Measurement method
                    6.1.2.2.3 Frequency calculation procedure and measurement accuracy
               6.1.2.3 Bandwidth measurements
               6.1.2.4 Power flux-density measurements
                    6.1.2.4.1 Measurements in a reference bandwidth
                    6.1.2.4.2 Measurement of total pfd
                    6.1.2.4.3 Measurement procedure
                    6.1.2.4.4 Measurement uncertainty
                    6.1.2.4.5 Non-GSO constellation satellite pfd measurements
               6.1.2.5 Polarization measurements
               6.1.2.6 Determination of orbital positions and orbital elements
                    6.1.2.6.1 GSO satellites
                    6.1.2.6.2 Non-GSO satellites
               6.1.2.7 Geolocation of transmitters on Earth using time and frequency difference measurements from two GSO satellites
                    6.1.2.7.1 Measuring time and frequency differences
                    6.1.2.7.2 Geolocation algorithm
                    6.1.2.7.3 Uncertainty analysis
               6.1.2.8 Geolocation of transmitters on Earth using a single GSO satellite and inverse Doppler shift
                    6.1.2.8.1 Geolocation algorithm
                    6.1.2.8.2 Frequency (Doppler) measurement
                    6.1.2.8.3 Position and velocity correction
               6.1.2.9 Geolocation of transmitters on Earth using time difference measurements from three GSO satellites
                    6.1.2.9.1 TDOA Measurement
                    6.1.2.9.2 Uncertainty analysis
               6.1.2.10 Frequency occupancy measurements and GSO orbit position occupancy measurements
               6.1.2.11 Measurements below the noise floor
          6.1.3 Equipment and facility requirements
               6.1.3.1 General
               6.1.3.2 Figure of merit of a space monitoring system
                    6.1.3.2.1 Terms defining G/T
                    6.1.3.2.2 G/T measurement procedures
               6.1.3.3 Antenna systems
               6.1.3.4 Antenna steering
               6.1.3.5 Antenna beamwidth necessary for angle measurements
               6.1.3.6 System polarization
               6.1.3.7 Receivers
               6.1.3.8 Peripheral equipment
                    6.1.3.8.1 General equipment
                    6.1.3.8.2 Analyser
               6.1.3.9 Broadband RF or IF monitoring channel
               6.1.3.10 Radio-frequency spectrum recording equipment
               6.1.3.11 Computer requirements
          6.1.4 Documentation and database support to space monitoring
               6.1.4.1 General considerations of documentation and database
               6.1.4.2 General information database of existing satellites
               6.1.4.3 Monitoring information database
               6.1.4.4 Using documentation and database to facilitate monitoring
          6.1.5 Identification of space stations and geolocation of earth stations
               6.1.5.1 Monitoring results to be used for identification
                    6.1.5.1.1 Evaluation of frequency band recordings
                    6.1.5.1.2 Calculation of period of revolution
                    6.1.5.1.3 Direction-finding
                    6.1.5.1.4 Calculation of ephemeris data from antenna angle measurements
                    6.1.5.1.5 Emission characteristics
               6.1.5.2 Identification procedure
               6.1.5.3 Other possibilities for identifying space stations
               6.1.5.4 Operational considerations regarding the geolocation of uplinking earth stations toward GSO satellites
                    6.1.5.4.1 Acquisition of necessary information
                    6.1.5.4.2 Adjacent satellite selection
                    6.1.5.4.3 Reference signals
                    6.1.5.4.4 Ephemeris data
                    6.1.5.4.5 Establishment of dedicated supplementary reference transmitters
                    6.1.5.4.6 Transportable reference transmitter
          6.1.6 Technical solutions by examples
               6.1.6.1 Example of a space radio monitoring station
                    6.1.6.1.1 Antenna system
                    6.1.6.1.2 Receiving facilities
                    6.1.6.1.3 Monitoring equipment
                    6.1.6.1.4 Control facilities
               6.1.6.2 Process for radio monitoring of GSO satellites
               6.1.6.3 Precise orbital longitude monitoring (radio interferometry)
                    6.1.6.3.1 Purposes of precise orbit monitoring
                    6.1.6.3.2 Interferometer hardware
                    6.1.6.3.3 Interferometer operations
                    6.1.6.3.4 Error calibration
          6.1.7 Monitoring results by examples
               6.1.7.1 Frequency band recording
               6.1.7.2 Calculation of orbital elements from antenna angle measurements
               6.1.7.3 Transponder occupancy measurements
               6.1.7.4 Inclination of GSO satellites
               6.1.7.5 Result and presentation of a geolocation measurement
          6.1.8 References
     6.2 Monitoring of terrestrial broadcast emissions
          6.2.1 Introduction
               6.2.1.1 Frequencies allocated to the terrestrial broadcasting service
               6.2.1.2 Quality of service
          6.2.2 Broadcast standards and measurements
               6.2.2.1 Analogue AM sound broadcasting
               6.2.2.2 Analogue FM sound broadcasting
               6.2.2.3 Analogue TV broadcasting
               6.2.2.4 Digital terrestrial sound broadcasting (DTSB)
               6.2.2.5 Digital terrestrial TV broadcasting (DTTB)
               6.2.2.6 Terrestrial multimedia broadcasting for mobile reception
          6.2.3 Coverage measurements
          6.2.4 Specific instruments used on broadcasting monitoring
               6.2.4.1 General topology
               6.2.4.2 Antenna system
               6.2.4.3 Reception and decoding
               6.2.4.4 Dedicated quality/technical parameter meter
          6.2.5 References
               6.2.5.1 ITU-R Recommendations
               6.2.5.2 ITU-R Reports
          6.2.6 Other references
          6.2.7 Abbreviations/Glossary
     6.3 Monitoring of cellular systems
          6.3.1 Introduction
          6.3.2 General description of the IMT systems and common monitoring procedures
          6.3.3 Common interference sources
               6.3.3.1 Unauthorized cellular repeaters
               6.3.3.2 Jammers
          6.3.4 2G/GSM
               6.3.4.1 System description
               6.3.4.2 Measurement of RF parameters
               6.3.4.3 Interference investigation
          6.3.5 3G/UMTS
               6.3.5.1 System description
               6.3.5.2 Measurement of RF parameters
               6.3.5.3 Interference investigation
          6.3.6 4G/LTE
               6.3.6.1 System description
               6.3.6.2 Measurement of RF parameters
               6.3.6.3 Interference investigation
          6.3.7 5G/NR
               6.3.7.1 System description
               6.3.7.2 Measurement of RF parameters
               6.3.7.3 Interference assessment
          6.3.8 Coverage measurements
               6.3.8.1 Drive or walk test method
               6.3.8.2 Crowd sourcing method
               6.3.8.3 Quality of service (QoS) and Quality of Experience (QoE) measurements
          6.3.9 References
          6.3.10 Abbreviations/Glossary
     6.4 Microwave links and satellite uplinks
          6.4.1 General introduction
          6.4.2 Use of microwave links
               6.4.2.1 Digital links
               6.4.2.2 Output spectrum
               6.4.2.3 Multiplexing in microwave radio systems
                    6.4.2.3.1 Frequency division multiplex
                    6.4.2.3.2 Time division multiplex
               6.4.2.4 Monitoring operation
          6.4.3 General techniques for measurement
               6.4.3.1 Direct interception system
               6.4.3.2 Interception system using RF mixers
          6.4.4 Equipment for monitoring vehicles
               6.4.4.1 Antenna system
                    6.4.4.1.1 Frequency range from 1 to 18/26 GHz
                    6.4.4.1.2 Frequency ranges 18-26 GHz and 26-40 GHz
               6.4.4.2 Analysing equipment
               6.4.4.3 Calibration equipment
               6.4.4.4 Navigation and positioning systems
               6.4.4.5 Rotation steering and telescopic supports
          6.4.5 Fixed-satellite service sharing with the fixed service
               6.4.5.1 FSS and FS interference
               6.4.5.2 Analysis methods
               6.4.5.3 Ground search phase of a GSO satellite interference investigation
                    6.4.5.3.1 General
                    6.4.5.3.2 Conventional approaches using directional antennas or omnidirectional antennas
                    6.4.5.3.3 Using cross-correlation algorithms for improving system sensitivity
                    6.4.5.3.4 Using aerial platforms for RSSI measurement
          6.4.6 Safety
          6.4.7 References
          6.4.8 Bibliography
          6.4.9 Abbreviations/Glossary
     6.5 Monitoring of radar emissions
          6.5.1 Introduction
          6.5.2 Radar basic principle
          6.5.3 The radar range equation
          6.5.4 Main components of radar systems
          6.5.5 Application of radar
          6.5.6 Basic radar technologies
          6.5.7 Types or classification of radars
          6.5.8 Main frequency bands for radar systems
          6.5.9 Instrument to measure radar signals
          6.5.10 Measurement of radar signals
               6.5.10.1 Main radar parameters
               6.5.10.2 Measurement set-up
               6.5.10.3 Measurement of the centre frequency
               6.5.10.4 Measurement of the pulse parameters
               6.5.10.5 Measuring the pulse power
               6.5.10.6 Measurement of the occupied bandwidth
               6.5.10.7 Measurement of unwanted emissions
               6.5.10.8 Measuring the phase modulation of a pulse
          6.5.11 Abbreviations/Glossary
          6.5.12 References
     6.6 Measurements of RF-EMF human exposure levels
          6.6.1 Introduction
          6.6.2 ITU three sectors, activities on EMF
          6.6.3 ICNIRP Guidelines
          6.6.4 Instruments for RF-EMF measurements
               6.6.4.1 Broadband isotropic probes and meters
               6.6.4.2 Tri-axis antennas and field strength meters
               6.6.4.3 Mobile and transportable stations
               6.6.4.4 Standard field strength measurement equipment
          6.6.5 Measurement procedures
               6.6.5.1 Measurements at designated locations
               6.6.5.2 Site compliance measurements
                    6.6.5.2.1 Selection of measurement sites
                    6.6.5.2.2 Measurement equipment
                    6.6.5.2.3 System-dependent measurement procedures and considerations
               6.6.5.3 Measurements to protect workers
          6.6.6 Uncertainty
          6.6.7 Reporting
          6.6.8 References
          6.6.9 Abbreviations/Glossary
     6.7 Radio noise measurements
          6.7.1 Introduction and background
          6.7.2 Sources of radio noise
          6.7.3 Components of radio noise
          6.7.4 Key parameters
          6.7.5 Measurement types
          6.7.6 Measurement locations and frequencies
          6.7.7 Examples of result presentation
          6.7.8 ITU radio noise databank
          6.7.9 References
          6.7.10 Abbreviations/Glossary
CHAPTER 7 – Fundamentals and supporting tools
     7.1 Radio Navigation Satellite Service (RNSS)
          7.1.1 General
               7.1.1.1 Purpose
               7.1.1.3 Available equipment
               7.1.1.4 Improvement in accuracy
     Bibliography
     7.2 Maps
          7.2.1 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
          7.2.2 Sources of digital data
               7.2.2.1 Existing digital maps
               7.2.2.2 Paper (printed) maps
               7.2.2.3 Optical and infrared satellite imagery, aerial photography and laser scanning
          7.2.3 Types of digital map data
               7.2.3.1 Administrative maps, road maps and geo-referenced photos
               7.2.3.2 Digital terrain model
               7.2.3.3 Building data and digital elevation model
               7.2.3.4 Clutter data
               7.2.3.5 ITU Digitized World Map
               7.2.3.6 Web mapping services
          7.2.4 Map resolutions for radio-wave propagation prediction calculations
          7.2.5 Geographic coordinate systems
     References
     Bibliography
     7.3 Radiated power calculations
          7.3.1 Introduction, e.r.p. and e.i.r.p. definition
          7.3.2 Estimation of the e.i.r.p. using received power measurements
               7.3.2.1 Calculation of the e.i.r.p. from received power and field strength
               7.3.2.2 Effect of reflections and obstacles on the determination of e.i.r.p.
          7.3.3 Total radiated power definition
          7.3.4 Estimation of the TRP by field strength measurements
          7.3.5 Propagation influence
     References
     7.4 Propagation models
          7.4.1 Effects of the atmosphere
               7.4.1.1 Effects below about 30 MHz
               7.4.1.2 Effects above about 30 MHz
          7.4.2 Effects of obstacles and irregular terrain
               7.4.2.1 Line-of-sight path
               7.4.2.2 Diffraction over obstacles and irregular terrain
          7.4.3 Effects of reflections by the surface of the Earth
          7.4.4 Propagation on Earth-space paths
          7.4.5 Available propagation models
          7.4.6 Propagation models and usage of various frequency bands
     References
     7.5 Intermodulation
          7.5.1 Background
          7.5.2 Intermodulation analysis equations
          7.5.3 Detection and identification of intermodulation products
     Bibliography
     7.6 Modulation and spectrum access methods
          7.6.1 Introduction
          7.6.2 Analogue modulation
               7.6.2.1 Amplitude modulation
               7.6.2.2 Frequency modulation
               7.6.2.3 Phase modulation
               7.6.2.4 Special analogue modulations
                    7.6.2.4.1 TV broadcast modulation
                    7.6.2.4.2 Single sideband modulation with suppressed carrier
                    7.6.2.4.3 Independent sideband modulation
                    7.6.2.4.4 Dynamic amplitude modulation
          7.6.3 Digital modulation
               7.6.3.1 Principles of digital modulation
               7.6.3.2 Amplitude shift keying
               7.6.3.3 Frequency-shift keying
               7.6.3.4 Phase-shift keying
               7.6.3.5 Minimum shift keying
               7.6.3.6 Quadrature amplitude modulation
               7.6.3.7 Baseband filtering for single carrier modulations
               7.6.3.8 Orthogonal frequency-division multiplex
          7.6.4 Spectrum access methods
               7.6.4.1 Frequency-division multiple access
               7.6.4.2 Time-division multiple access
               7.6.4.3 Spread spectrum
                    7.6.4.3.1 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
                    7.6.4.3.2 Direct sequence spread spectrum
               7.6.4.4 Code-division multiple access
               7.6.4.5 Spatial multiplex (SDMA) and spatial channels
          7.6.4.6 Orthogonal frequency division multiple access
          7.6.4.7 Single carrier frequency division multiple access
     Bibliography
     7.7 Fast Fourier transform
          7.7.1 Basics
          7.7.2 Analogue to digital conversion, sampling
          7.7.3 Windowing
          7.7.4 FFT implementations, overlap processing
          7.7.5 Range of applications
     Bibliography
     7.8 Planning and optimization of spectrum monitoring networks
          7.8.1 Introduction
          7.8.2 Principles for the planning and optimization of spectrum monitoring networks
     References
     7.9 Measurement uncertainty
          7.9.1 Introduction
          7.9.2 Overview and definition of measurement uncertainty
          7.9.3 Common distribution functions to express uncertainty
          7.9.4 Application
          7.9.5 Example of an uncertainty calculation
          7.9.6 References
     7.10 Antenna processing and spatial diversity
          7.10.1 Introduction
          7.10.2 Antenna processing for spectrum monitoring
          7.10.3 Antenna processing principles
               7.10.3.1 Antenna arrays and receiver
               7.10.3.2 Beamforming
                    7.10.3.2.1 Antenna filtering or conventional beamforming
                    7.10.3.2.2 Adaptive antenna or adaptive beamforming
               7.10.3.3 Demodulation and analysis
     7.11 Required documentation
          7.11.1 Basic and general international documents
          7.11.2 Minimum documentation that should be available at monitoring stations
          7.11.3 ITU-R Recommendations
          7.11.4 Radiocommunication SG 1 Recommendations and Reports
          7.11.5 ITU-R Handbooks
          7.11.6 Relevant ITU-R software
          7.11.7 Internet websites
CHAPTER 8 – Monitoring system planning and tenders
     8.0 Introduction
     8.1 Topics to be considered by Regulatory Authorities before issuing a tender
     8.2 General overview of a tender process
     8.3 Preparation stage: planning
          8.3.1 Concept for a radio monitoring system
          8.3.2 Feasibility study
               8.3.2.1 The goal of feasibility study
               8.3.2.2 Content and structure of the feasibility study
          8.3.3 Business plan
          8.3.4 System planning and design
               8.3.4.1 Review of existing laws and legal aspects
               8.3.4.2 Review of existing procedures and methodologies
               8.3.4.3 Review of existing measuring capabilities
               8.3.4.4 Market evaluation
               8.3.4.5 Data base of spectrum management
               8.3.4.6 Programs engineering analysis
               8.3.4.7 National spectrum management system evaluation and monitoring system determination
               8.3.4.8 Hardware and software evaluation
               8.3.4.9 National management of project
          8.3.5 Development of specifications for the system
               8.3.5.1 Planned spectrum monitoring network, national and regional centres, monitoring stations
                    8.3.5.1.1 Organization, number of operator positions and equipment of a monitoring station
                    8.3.5.1.2 Measurement tasks
               8.3.5.2 General equipment specifications
               8.3.5.3 Monitoring vehicles and devices
               8.3.5.4 Software
               8.3.5.5 General requirements for the units of monitoring systems
               8.3.5.6 Specifications for services
                    8.3.5.6.1 Site survey
                    8.3.5.6.2 Telecommunication links and network
          8.3.6 Training
          8.3.7 Maintenance and repair
          8.3.8 Documentation
     8.4 Implementation stage: tender processes
          8.4.1 Specimen of invitation for monitoring tender
               8.4.1.1 Invitation for monitoring tender document
                    8.4.1.1.1 Guidance part
                    8.4.1.1.2 Main articles of the contract
                    8.4.1.1.3 Technical requirements
          8.4.2 Specimen for proposals of the bidder
               8.4.2.1 Introduction
               8.4.2.2 General technical characteristics
               8.4.2.3 System functions
               8.4.2.4 Method of system implementation
               8.4.2.5 Technical guarantees
               8.4.2.6 Detailed definitions on:
               8.4.2.7 Presentation of references
               8.4.2.8 Block diagrams of system
               8.4.2.9 Price
          8.4.3 Specimen contract format
          8.4.4 Evaluation and comparison of proposals and award of contract
               8.4.4.1 Procedures as defined by ITU
               8.4.4.2 Procedures as defined by the World Bank
               8.4.4.3 Procedures in case the purchasing administration is not bound to the procedures from ITU or World Bank
     8.5 Final (termination) stage: Acceptance procedure
          8.5.1  Factory acceptance
          8.5.2  Site acceptance test procedure
               8.5.2.1 Acceptance (or provisional acceptance in the case of provisional and final acceptance)
               8.5.2.2 Final acceptance
     8.6 Final remarks
     8.7 References
     Annex 1 to Chapter 8  ITU example of technical analysis of the proposals
     Annex 2 to Chapter 8  ITU example of the commercial and legal evaluations
     1 Commercial evaluation – Opening of commercial proposals
     2 Legal evaluation – Compliance with specimen contract format (Part II of Invitation to Tender)
     Annex 3 to Chapter 8  Approach to cost-modelling for the development of spectrum monitoring systems
     1 Scenarios for the development of national spectrum monitoring systems
          1.1 Short-term scenario
          1.2 Mid-term scenario
          1.3 Long-term scenario
     2 Cost-modelling for the development of the spectrum monitoring systems
     3 Lifecycle management considerations related to the spectrum monitoring systems
List of the abbreviations used in the Handbook